Conceptualism: conceptualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of conceptualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.
Complementarity: complementarity may be regarded as special case of incampatibility holding over two-term sets. It is characteristic of such paris of lexical items that the approval of one implies the denial of the other. In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other. For example, a person can be either “alive” or “dead”, either “male” or “female”; there is no third possibility.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: in the discussion about the relationship between language and culture, one of the essential issues is that between language and thought. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, through their studies of American Indian languages, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influenced the ways they think and behave. That is to say, different languages offer people different ways of expression the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity. Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sair-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways: a strong version and a weak one. While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the latter. So far, many researches and experiments conducted in various disciplines provide support to the weak version. The studies have shed new light on our understanding of the hypothesis: people tend to sort out and distinguish experiences differently according to the semantic categories provided by their different codes. The study of the linguistic relativity or Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has shed light on two important insights: There is nowadays recognition that language, as a code, reflects cultural and preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Even in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.
Backwash effect: this term describes the effect of testing on teaching. Backwash can be harmful or beneficial. Positive backwash happens ehen students study and learn those things which teachers intend them to study and learn. On the other hand, negative backwash means the converse. For example, if teachers measure writing skills only through multiple-choice items, then there will be pressure to practice such items, rather than writing itself. In this case, the backwash would be negative.
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Structuralist linguistics: structuralist linguistics is a principally American phenomenon of the mid-20th century, typified by the work of Leonard Bloomfield, who drew on ideas of the behaviorist school of psychology. The structuralists are primarily concerned with phonology, morphology, and syntax. They fouces on the physical features of utterances with little regard for meaning or lexicon. Sructuralist linguistics describes linguistic features in terms of structures and systems. Dissatisfied with traditional grammar, structuralist grammat sets out to describe the current spoken language which people use in communication. For the first time, structuralist grammar provides description of phonological systems which aids the systemaic teaching of pronunciation. However, like traditional grammar, the focus of sturcruralist grammar is still on the grammatical structures of a language.
What is morpheme? What is an allomorph?
The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.
Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes（and thus phonetic forms）of the same morpheme. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map→maps, mouse→mice, sheep→sheep etc. What is concord? What is government?
“Concord” may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterised by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government” requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words, that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g., “I helped him; he helped me.”
What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? （What is linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity?）
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is a series of ideas about the language-culture relationship, formulated by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, the main ideas of which are: （1）one’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in that language. （2）the categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of other systems.
Or, put differently, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has the following two major thrusts: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.
1. What is a speech act? A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.
Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.
Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionary force.
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A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of
performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals, 2.Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three
different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be
understood 3.Illocutionary
act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. 4.Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.
What is an indirect speech act?
An “indirect speech act” means that some sentences, in the utterance and the seeming performance of a speech act, perform a certain illocutionary act indirectly. For example: “Can you pass me the salt please?” is a question, but it is more of a request than of an interrogation about the hearer’s salt-passing ability. The problem is how it is possible for the speaker to say one thing and mean another, and how it is possible for the hearer to understand the indirect speech act. It is the shared background information and the general power of rationality and the power of inference on the part of the hearer that co-operatively make it possible. For example, A: “Let’s go to the movies tonight,” B: “I have to study for an exam.” B’s remark, which seems to be a statement, like a news announcement, is actually a refusal. The first speaker（A）has to infer a lot, but easily: “I made proposal; I expected him to accept or decline, but he didn’t tell me in an explicit, direct way; so his illocution must be different from the literal meaning; I know that the study for an exam means a lot of time; going to the theatre means some time; he probably cannot do both in one evening; probably his primary illocutionary act is a rejection to my proposal.”
Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis
1.Contrastive analysis (CA): CA is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages. E.g. the comparison of the sound or the grammatical system.
2.Transfer: Transfer refers to the carrying over of learned behavior from one situation to another.
(1)Positive transfer (facilitation): Positive transfer is learning in one situation which helps or facilitates learning in another later situation. E.g. when the structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer. (2) Negative transfer (interference): Negative transfer is learning in one situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.
3. Overgeneralization: A process common in both first and second language learning, in which a learner extends the use of a grammatical rule of linguistic item beyond its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more regular pattern. E.g. in the sentence “* He speaked English.”, “speaked” is wrong (over generalized).
4. Hypercorrection: Overgeneralization of a rule in language use. E.g. some learners constantly miss the articles in English, and after they are corrected, they tend to overuse them. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 1.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP): It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.
2.Theme: The point of departure of a sentence is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer – it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the theme.
3.Rheme: The goal of discourse of a sentence presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the rhyme.
12.2 The London School The London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great
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importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes. 2. Multiple Choice
1) Linguists give priority to the spoken language not the written language because(B). A. vocal sounds are derived from writing systems B. speech precedes writing everywhere in the world C. we have recording devices to study speech
D. spoken language precedes written language only in Indo-European languages 2) A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as (C). A.unnatural B.something to be feared C.natural D.abnormal 3) A linguist is interested in (A).
A. speech sounds only B.all sounds C.vowels only D.consonants only 4) Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? (A) A. [p] B. [m] C. [b] D. [t]
5) Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? (D) A. [j] B.[tʃ] C. [z] D. [dʒ]
6) Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? (A) A. [ə:] B. [i] C. [əu] D. [ɑ:]
7) In English if a word begins with a [l] or [r], then the next sound must be a (D). A. fricative B.nasal sound C.semi-vowel D.vowel 8) There are (B) morphemes in the word “boyish”. A. one B.two C.three D.four 9) In English “-ise” and “-tion” are called (B).
A. prefixes B.suffixes C.infixes D.free morphemes
10) The words “make” and “bus” are called (D) because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B. inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes
11) The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are (B).
A. gradable opposites B.relational opposites C.synonyms D.co-hyponyms 12) The semantic components of the word “man” can be expressed as (C). A. +animate, +human, +male, -adult B. +animate, +human, -male, -adult C. +animate, +human, +male, +adult D. +animate, +human, -male, -adult
13) What kind of function does the sentence “How do you do?” have? (B) A. Directive B.Phatic C.Informative D.Evocative 14) F.de Saussure is a(n) (C) linguist.
A. American B.British C.Swiss D.Russian
15) The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in (D).
A. 1818 B.1800 C.1988 D.1888
16) Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as (A).
A. lexical words B.grammatical words C.function words D.form words 17) What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip”? (C) A. Polysemy B.Homonymy C.Hyponymy D.Antonymy
18) What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”? (A)
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A. Exocentric B.Endocentric C.Coordinate D.Subordinate
19) The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as (B) linguistics. A. applied B.diachronic C.comparative D.synchronic 20) N. Chomsky is a(n) (B) linguist.
A. Canadian B.American C.Frech D.Swiss
21) (C) are produced when the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the throat and the air is allowed to apss through it.
A. Semi-vowels B.Affricates C.Nasals D.Glides
22) (B) are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released.
A. Back vowels B.Stops C.Fricatives D.Glides
23) The letter combination “un-” in the words “unhappy”, “unhealthy” is called a (A). A. prefix B.suffix C.free morpheme D.root
24) “You sit down” is transformed into “Sit down”. Which transformational rule is used according to TG Grammar? (D)
A. Copying B.Addition C.Reordering D.Deletion
25) “Words are names or labels for things.” This view is called (C) in semantic theory. A. mentalism B.conceptualism C.naming theory D.contextualism 26) The words such as “lab”, “doc” are (D).
A. formed by blending B.acronyms C. coined by back formation D.clipped words 27) At the age of four, children (A).
A. can master the essentials of their mother tongue B. can only babble several sounds
C. can name the things around them only
D. can write out all the grammatical rules of their mother tongue 28) The words “railway” and “railroad” are (B). A. synonyms differing in emotive meaning B. dialectal synonyms
C. collocationally-restricted synonyms D. synonyms differing in styles
29) The word “unhappiness” has (C) morpheme(s). A. one B.two C.three D.four
30) L. Bloomfield is a famous (C) structural linguist. A. British B.Russian C.American D.French
31) “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which transformational rule is used? (C)
A. Copying B.Reordering C.Addition D.Deletion 32) A word with several meanings is called (B).
A. an abnormal word B.a polysemous word C.a synomymous word D.None of the above
33) We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as (D).
A. polysemy B.antonymy C.homophony D.hyponymy 34) The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called (A).
A. gradable coopsitites B.complementary antonyms C. co-hyponyms D.relational opposites
35) The word “language” is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person’s language called (B). A. scientific language B.idiolect C.colloquial language D.formal language 36) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? (A) A. tree B.crash C.typewriter D.bang
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37) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is (C). A. interrogative B.directive C.informative D.performative 38) The phrase “men and women” belongs to the (B) construction. A. predicate B.coordinate C.subordinate D.exocentric
39) (C) refers to a construction where one clause is coordinated with another. A. Embedding B.Recursiveness C.Conjoining D.Cohesion 40) What is the syllabic structure of the word “stamp”? (C) A. CV B.CVCC C.CCVCC D.CCVC
41) Which of the following languages has the syllabic writing system? (D) A. Chinese B.Japanese C.English D. French
42) Unlike animal communication systems, human language is (A) A. stimulus free B. stimulus bound
C. under immediate stimulus control
D. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest
43) Which of the following is the most important function of language? (C) A. interpersonal function B. performative function C. informative function D. recreational function
44) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100degree Centigrade” is (C). A. interrogative B.directive C.informative D.performative
45) Which of the following disciplines are related to applied linguistics? (B,F) A. statistics B.psycholinguistics C.physics D.philosophy E. geology F.education
46) (B) has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics. A. Chomsky B.Saussure C.Bloomfield D.John Lyons
47) Of the three cavities, (C) is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech sounds.
A. nasal cavity B.pharynx cavity C.oral cavity 48) All syllables contain a (A). A. nucleus B.coda C.onse
49) A sound which capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language is a (C).
A. allpphone B.phone C.phoneme
50) (D) is one of the suprasegmental features. A. Stop B.Vicing C.Deletion D.Tone
51) Narrow transcription is the phonetic transcription with (A). A. diacritics B.distinctive features C.voicing D.articulation 52) Velar refers to (B).
A. larynx B.soft palate C.alveolar D.pharynx
53) Which of the following consonants does not exist in English? (A) A. dental stop B.bilabial stop C.alveolar stop D.velar stop 54) (C) is not a distinctive feature in English phonology. A. Nasality B.Voicing C.Aspiration D.Rounding 55) (A) is not an English consonant.
A. Labio-dental plosive B.Alveolar nasal C.Velar stop D.Dental fricative 56) The choice of an allophone in a given phonetic context is (B). A. random B.predicatable C.variable D.independent 57) Voicing of explosives is a distinctive feature in (C).
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A. Chinese B.English C.both Chinese and English D.neither Chinese nor English
58) Compound words consist of (B) morphemes. A. bound B.free C.both bound and free
59) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are (B).
A. grammatical words B.lexical words C.neither grammatical nor lexical words 60) “Radar” is a/an (A).
A. acronym B.blending C.coinage D.clipping
61) The words “take” and “table” are called (C) because they can occur unattached. A. form words B.bound morphemes C.free morphemes D.inflectional morphemes
62) A (A) is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
A. stem B.root C.allomorph D.lexeme
63) (B) is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.
A. Blending B.Acronym C.Abbreviation D.Invention
) (D) is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
A. Loanshift B.Loan translation C.Loanword D.Loanblend
65) (B) is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classed displaying such contrasts as masculine/feminine/neuter, animate/inanimate,etc. A. Case B.Gender C.Number D.Category
The relation between words “rose” and “flower” is that of (D). A. synonymy B.antonymy C.homonymy D.hyponymy
66) (B) refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
A. Syntagmatic relation B.Paradigmatic relation C.Co-occurrence relation
67) According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, (A) contain all the information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.
A. deep structures B.surface structures C.transformational rules D.PS-roles 68) In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by (B) and ( ).
A. subject,object B.subject,predicate C.predicate,object D.object,predicate
69) The (A) construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.
A. exocentric B.endocentric C.subordinate D.coordinate
70) The sense relationship between “John plays the violin” and “John plays a musical instrument” is (C).
A. hyponymy B.antonymy C.entailment
71) “Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a (D). A. synonymy B.polysemy C.antonymy D.tautology 72) Conceptual meaning is (A).
A. denotative B.connotative C.associative D.affective
73) When the word “root” means “part of plant that keeps it firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is (B) meaning. A. connotative B.conceptual C.reflected 74) “Wide/narrow” is an example of (A).
A.gradable opposites B.relational opposites C.converseness D.complementarity 75) An illocutionary act is identical with (B).
A. sentence meaning B.the speaker’s intention C.language understanding
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D. the speaker’s competence
76) The Indirect Speech Act was developed by (D).
A. John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle
77) (C) is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. A. Morphology B.Syntax C.Pragmatics D.Semantics
78) Tautologies like “boys are boys” and “war is war” are extreme examples in which the maxim of (A) is violated.
A. quality B.quantity C.relevance D.manner
79) In the present day, the stability of (D) seems to be decreasing. A. social-class dialect B.idiolect C.taboo D.regional dialect
80) (D) refers to the extent to which the test adequately covers the syllabus area to be tested. A. Face validity B.Empirical validity C.Construct validity D.Content validity 81) Discovering procedures are practiced by (A).
A. descriptive grammar B.TG grammar C.traditional grammar D. functional grammar
82) In which of the following did Chomsky add the semantic component to his TG Grammar for the first time? (B)
A.The Classic Theory B.The Stanard Theory C.The Extended Standard Theory D.The Minimalist Program
83) According to Halliday, the three general functions of language are (A). A. ideational, interpersonal and textual B. ideational, informative and textual
C. metalinguistic, interpersonal and textual D. ideational, interpersonal and referential
3. Word Completion
1) Interchangeability means theat any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.
2) Aptitude Tests attempt to measure the learner’s aptitude or natural abilities to learn.
3) F. de Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view. 4) Not all the sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in the complementary distribution. 5) Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect and case.
6) The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
7) Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so the sounds become different.
8) Embedding refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination.
9) The design features of language are (1) arbitrariness, (2) duality, (3) productivity, (4) displacement, (5) cultural transmission and (6) interchangeability. 10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 11) By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and sound. 12) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) exhausiveness, (2) consistencey, (3) economy and (4) objectivity. 13) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. 14) The branch of general linguistics which is named syntax studies the internal structure of
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sentences.
15) In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) and signified (concept) is arbitrary. 16) Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. 17) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made by the American linguist Noam Chomsky. 18) The writing system of English is known as the sound writing system while that of Japanese as syllabic writing system. 19) The syllable consists of three parts: the onset, the nucleus (peak), and the coda. 20) The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. 21) Name six places of articulation according to Fromkin and Rodman throat, palate, palate top, teeth, lips and nose. 22) In the production of a velar sound, the back of the tongue is raised so that it touches the soft palate to form a kind of obstruction.
23) By the position of the highest part of the tongue, vowels are classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels.
24) Pitch, as a principal suprasegmental feature, can be defined as the relative intensity of loudness with which a syllable is uttered.
25) Assimilation/Coarticulation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.
26) When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as suprasegmental features. 27) Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the affixes. 28) “On”, “before” and “together” are grammatical/function words – tey are words which do not take inflectional endings.
29) Give the regular allomorphs of plural in Englsih: -s, -z, -iz, -ai, -i. 30) Give the regular allomorphs fo past tense in Englsih: -d, -t, -id. 31) Nouns, verbs and adjectives are lexical words rather than function words. 32) In the addition of new words, “smog” is a(an) blending. 33) “Waltz” is borrowed from German. 34) As a result of assimilation, the negative morpheme in “imperfect” and “impossible” is “im-” rather than “in-”.
35) The linguistic term used for the common factor of a set of verbs, such as “writing, wrote, written, write” and “writes” is lexeme. 36) A bound morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself. 37) Name three of SVO languages: Chinese, English, German. 38) IC is the short form of immediate constituent used in the study of syntax. 39) The category of case is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with six distinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative.
40) The generative approach to linguistics refers to the theory originated with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who published his book “Syntactic Structures” in 1957.
41) When the affirmative sentence “Jack sold his linguistics textbooks to Jill after the final examination” is transformed into “When did Jack sell his linguistics textbooks to Jill?”, three transformational rules are applied. They are Do-insertion, Subject-aux Inversion and wh-movement. 42) The sentence “It was John who wore his best suit to the dance last night” is called a cleft sentence by traditional grammarians. It is so called because it divides a single clause into two separate sections, each with its own verb.
43) Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate
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(verb+object) construction, and connective (be complement) construction.
44) According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able to generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.
45) Name five of the associative meaning categorized by Leech: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning. 46) Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). 47) The sense relation between “A lent a book to B” and “B borrowed a book from A” is synonym. 48) Antonyms like “husband” vs. “wife” are converse antonyms. 49) Terms like “desk” and “stool” are (co)hyponyms of the term “furniture”.
50) According to D. Leech, conceptual meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content. 51) We use the term presupposition to refer to the relation between the following two sentences: a. Jack’s bike needs repairing. b. Jack has a bike.
52) The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality. 53) Inspried by the medieval grammarians, Ogden and Richare (1923) present the classic “semantic triangle’ in their book The Meaning of Meaning. 54) In the light of the cooperative principle, four maxims are specified. They are the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. 55) The speech act theory explains the nature of linguistic communication. It says that a speaker, while making an utterance, is performing three acts simultaneously: a locutionary act, an illocutionary act, and a perlocutionary act. 56) Any discourse can be seen as a configuration of field, mode and tenor. 57) The wave theory shows a language existing in different dialects that overlap each other.
58) Name four subfamilies in the Indo-European language family: Celtic, Italic, Germanic, and Hellenic. 59) The language in the Germanic subfamily are English, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Dutch. 60) English belongs to the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family. 61) Agglutinative languages are those in which words are typically composed of a sequence of affixes added to the root.
62) The term diglossia describes a situation in which two distince varieties of a language, a “high” and a “low”, are used, each with separate social functions.
63) Japanese, a modern language, uses a partially syllabic writing system. ) Euphemism, which serves as a polite substiture for taboo expressions, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears that more direct wording might be harsh or offensive.
65) A pidgin is a mixed and limited language used for some practical purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s languages.
66) When a pidgn has acquired native speakers, that is to say, when it becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole. 67) Peple do not perceive the world freely but rather they do so through language, a filtering structure which will distort the reality and thus influence and control the thought. This view is commonly referred to as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which can be traced back to Von Humboldt. 68) The linguistic study of language planning is called institutional linguistics. The word “afters’ usually used in lower class. 69) More qualifiers and intensifiers are used by women. 70) The term adjacency pair describes the observed fact that people take turns at speaking, one at a time, in conversation.
71) The purpose of proficiency test is to discover what the testee already knows about the target
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language. It is not concerned with any particular course but the learner’s general level of language mastery.
72) In 1957, Robert Lado published his “Linguistics Across Cultures” in which he presented a large quantity of data and stated the importance of contrastive analysis. 73) The term holophrastic is used to describe the process whereby a child users one word like “ball” to refer to “an apple”, “an egg”, “a grape” and “a ball”?
74) For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as behaviorism. 75) The Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of Vilem Mathesius. 76) Franz Boas (1885-1942) worked as organizer of a survey of many indigenous languages of America north of Mexico. The result of the survey was the book entitled “Handbook of American Indian languages”.
77) M.A.K. Halliday studied Chinese at Peking University under Luo Changpei from 1947 to 1949, and then at Lingnan University under Wang Li from 1949 to 1950. 78) Relevance Theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book “Relevance: Communication and Cognition” in 1986.
79) The distinction between the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of the language, which is called linguistic competence, and the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance, which is called performance, is made by American linguist Noam Chomsky.
80) The task of a linguist is to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.
81) Philosophers, psychologists and linguists commonly make the point that it is the possession of language that most clearly distinguishes man from other animals. 82) Articulatory phonetics studies the human speech organs and the way in which the speech sounds are produced. 83) Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of the speech sounds and the sound properties through the use of such machines as a spectrograph.
84) In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are called open classes.
85) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour.
86) Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.
87) In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word”, the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
88) IC Analysis can be represented in different ways such as treediagrams or bracketing. ) Coordinate construction refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses having equivalent syntactic status.
90) The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. 91) Traditional grammar lays emphasis on correctness, linguistic excellence, the use of Latin models and the priority of the written language.
92) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.
93) Language has at least seven basic functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative, and performative. 94) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue. 95) By minimal pair, we refer to word forms which differ from each other only by one sound, e.g.,
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“pin” and “bin”.
96) When two sounds never occur in the same environment they said to be in complementary distribution. 97) A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.
98) Government requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic construction with another word of a particular syntactic class exhibit the form of a specific category.
99) In sociolinguistics, domain refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrained by a common set of behavioural rules.
100) Displacement means that language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
101) Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. 102)Phonetic transcription is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.
103) H. Sweet made a distinction between narrow and broad transcriptions. 104) Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.
105)By the relation of co-occurrence one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require the occurrence of a word of an other set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
106) Psychologically people tend to regard the first major constituent of a sentence as the subject. 107) The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
108) Concord may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another should also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category.
109) Pictogram refers to an inscription which represents the features of a physical object. 110) Speech Act Theory was proposed by John Austin in 1962. 111) It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition. 4. True or False Questions
1) (F) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.
2) (F) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function.
3) (T) The reason for French to use “cheval” and for English to use “horse” to refer to the same animal is inexplicable.
4) (F) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation. 5) (F) Halliday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and perfor- mance.
6) (T) Descriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.
7) (F) The word “hour” contains a diphthong and a pure vowel.
8) (F) The sound /p/ in the word “expensive” is pronounced as a voiceless consonant. 9) (T) Broad transcription represents phonemes of a language whereas narr- ow transcription denotes its particular allophones. 10) (F) /o/ is a mid-high front rounded vowel. 11) (F) The voiced dental fricative is /z/.
12) (F) The word “film” contains a syllabic consonant. 13) (T) The hard roof of mouth is called hard palate.
14) (T) A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.
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15) (T) In the sound writing system, the reference of the grapheme is the phoneme. 16) (T) In English, we have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC. 17) (T) “Plural” is a morpheme.
18) (F) Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound. 19) (T) A root is not always a free form. 20) (F) All bound morphemes are affixes. 21) (T) All words contain a root morpheme.
22) (F) The words “water” and “teacher” hav ea common phoneme and a common morpheme as well.
23) (T) Root also falls into two categories: free and bound.
24) (F) Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.
25) (T) The meaning relationship between MAN and GROWN-UP is hyponymous because the semantic features of MAN are included in those of GrOWN-UP. 26) (F) Semantically, BEEF is excluded in MEAT.
27) (T) “Kids” and “children” are synonyms despite their stylistic difference. 28) (T) In the following pair of sentences, Sentence (b) presupposes Sentence (a): (a) John managed to finish in time. (b) John tried to finish in time.
29) (T) In the semiotic triangle, there is no direct relationship between symbol and referent. 30) (F) If a word has sense, it must have reference.
31) (T) Predication of a sentence is identical to the proposition of the sentence.
32) (F) After comparing “They stopped at the end of the corridor” with “At the end of the corridor, they stopped”, you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.
33) (T) The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.
34) (T) The Cooperative Principle, an important pragmatic principle proposed by P. Grice, aims to explain how speakers carry on communication cooperatively in utterances. 35) (T) A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.
36) (T) According to Searle’s classification of speech acts, request, order, suggest and advice all belong to the same one general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.
37) (F) Greek does not belong to Indo-European Language Family.
38) (F) Regional dialect is a variety of language related to the use of language.
39) (T) The term Stream of Consciousness was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology to describe the free association of ideas and impressions in the mind. 40) (T) Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.
41) (T) Sociolinguists are interested in “terms of address” because they offer some socio-cultural information about the type of relationship between the speaker and the hearer. 42) (F) Micro-sociolinguistics is sociolinguistics proper.
43) (T) Linguistic competence is one variety of cultural-competence.
44) (F) In Hymes’ view, the learner acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical but also as lexical.
45) (T) The concept competence originally refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situation.
46) (T) Regardless of their ethnic and cultural background, children of all colors and societies follow roughly the same route/order of language development, though they may differ in the rate of learning.
47) (F) It is generally believed that people learn their first language consciously and acquire their second language naturally.
48) (F) Overgeneralization is a common error made by an early foreign language learner.
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49) (T) An achievement test assesses how much a learner has mastered the contents of a particular course.
50) (F) In the Classical theory, Chomsky’s aim is to make linguistics a science. This theory is characterized by three features: (1) emphasis on prescription of language, (2) introduction of transformational rules, and (3) grammatical description regardless of language formation.
51) (T) Generative grammar is a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences.
52) (T) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 53) (F) Of all the design features of the human language, displacement is the most important.
54) (F) The expressive and evocative functions of language are actually the different sides of the same thing.
55) (F) The first language was invented by Adam, the first man, according to F. de Saussure. 56) (T) Language is human specific.
57) (F) Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in the human history.
58) (F) Descriptive linguistics used to be more powerful than prescriptive linguistics in Samuel Johnson’s time.
59) (F) By synchrony we mean to study language change and development. 60) (T) The word “ungentlemanliness” has five morphemes. 61) (F) The open-class words include prepositions. 62) (T) “The boy smiled” has an exocentric structure.
63) (T) The IC Analysis is not able to analyse split verbs like “do sb. in”.
) (F) The CP Principle, put forward by P. Grice, has four maxims, for writing as well as speaking. 65) (F) Sentences are strings of words put together in a random order.
66) (T) In most languages the air stream usually comes from the lungs and the sound is superimposed on the outgoing breath.
67) (F) The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make a different word, are phones.
68) (T) Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.
69) (F) M.A.K. Halliday said that sentence was the maximum free form and word the minimum free form.
70) (F) When we talk about pro-forms we think of pro-adjectives and pronouns exclusively.
71) (F) Conjoining refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.
72) (F) Of all the design features of the human language, cultural transmission is the one that really counts.
73) (F) Chinese is thought to be the first language by most linguists. 74) (F) A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable.
75) (F) In English there may be at most four consonants before the peak and four after-CCCCVCCCC.
In order to make a systematic review, I think it is necessary to mention part of contents of conclusions. China is a nation with vast territory and large multitudinous dialects, so it is inescapable to have conflicts among different languages and give rise to obstacles in oral communication. Besides, under the influence of phonetic fossilization, negative transfer of mother tongue and poor phonetic knowledge, second language learners have been afflicted by them for a long time. So, it is impending to find an effective way to deal with these phonetic problems. On such a premise, the thesis firstly analyzes these phonetic problems and then sets forth the reasons for phonetic problems coming into SLA. Next, it introduces some theories about second language acquisition to instruct our phonetic study and promote second language acquisition. At long last, the thesis concludes and lists the approaches to overcoming phonetic problems.
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