英国文学史

Introduction

1 What kind of this course it is?

If you want to learn English and American literature very well, you should know a lot about the bible .The bible is an excellent work in the world . Jesus Christ Number 13

1808 it is the eight floors

We should observe the life carefully. The bible

1 the Old Testament: It tells the story of god (about Jehovah) 2 the New Testment : A birth of Jesus B Adam and Eve

C The prince of Egypt D The Babylon tower E The forbidden fruit F The Satan Four religions 1, Christianity

They go to the church to worshipping, their teaching is the bible, person who believes Christianity is Christian, and they believe Jesus.

2, Buddhism

They go to the temple to read the Buddhist Scriptures. The Buddhism believes the Buddha . 3, Islam

The main color of those buildings is green. The religious doctrine is Koran. Moslem believes the Allah. 4, Taoism

It was born in China. People who believe in Taoism are Taoists. Greek and Roman myths

In ancient times, one city was a country. One day Oedipus was born. Before he was born, his parents heard that he will kill his father and marry his mother. So his father gave him away to a shepherd. The two countries are very near to each other. The shepherd gave the baby to his king and queen. Because they did not have a baby. So they adopted him happily and brought him up. One day, he heard that he will kill his father and marry his mother; he escaped during the night in a hurry. When he came to a crossroad, he met a group of people, their leader is an old man. They had quarrelling and fighting. In a hurry, he killed the old man. The old man is the king who together with his attendants went to find Apollo. Because a monster surrounded his country and gave them a riddle . The riddle is which animal can walk with 4 legs in the morning, 2 at the noon, three in the afternoon. The king promised that who will save the problem, which will be the king and marry the queen. Oedipus solved the riddle, so he became the king and married his mother.

Part One Early and Medieval English Literature

Chapter 1 The Making of England

1. The Britons (the inhabitants)

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The early inhabitants in the island we know were called Britons. This is a tribe of Celt, from the Briton. The island got its name of Briton means the island of Briton, so the Briton were living in the tribal society. They were divided into a lot of small tribes, and each tribe lived in a group of huts. 2. The Roman Conquest

In 55 BC, Briton was invaded by Ulysses Caesar, the Roman conquest Gaul. The Britons fought stubbornly under the leadership of their chieftain. The Britons were trampled down as slaves. The Roman occupation lasted for about 400 years. Briton was not completely dominated by the Roman Empire until 78 AD. With the Roman conquest, the Roman mode of life came into Briton. And they have the highway for military purpose troops, equipment, facilities and weapons. Cambridge was ever a site for military purpose. Besides the buildings, Christianity was introduced into Briton. At the beginning of 5th century, the Roman Empire fails into decline. And in 410 AD, the Roman troops withdraw. So the Roman conquest ended. They left so many cities and street buildings. The Roman’s conquest of Briton had some influence on Britons.

3. The English conquest

At the same time, Briton was invaded by swarms of pirates. They were three tribes from the northern Europe. Angles and Saxons jutes . When they landed Briton, the Briton were driven to the west and north and settled down themselves. The jutes occupied Kent in the southeastern corner. The Saxon occupied the southern part. The Angle occupied east midland. By the 7th century, the small kingdoms were united into one kingdom called England or the land of angles. The three tribes had mixed into a whole called England. The angle was the most numerous and the three dialects spoken by them naturally grow into one which we now called angle-Saxon. We called English.

4. Angle-Saxon religion belief and its influence

Angle and Saxon were heathen people. They believe in the old mythology of northern Europe. That is why the northern mythology has left its marks on the English language.

The Angle-Saxon was Christianized in the century. Monasteries were built all over the country, In these monasteries, at that time only monks could read and write, the earliest English books were written down. But the monks hated the heathen writings. They added them with some Christian color to their writings. So the Anglo-Saxon period witnessed a transition from tribal society to feudalism.

Chapter 2 Beowulf

1. Background information

Beowulf is a folk legend brought to England by Anglo-Saxons from their continental homes. It has been passed from mouth to mouth before it was written down by some unknown maybe monk in monastery. Its main stories are folk legends of primitive northern tribes. Such tribes lived along the northwestern coast of Europe. Back of their settlement impenetrable forests, in front of them was the storming northern ocean. They had to fight against the beasts. They have to struggle against the force of the nature, which remained myth unknown to them. When they returned from exploits and voyages, the warriors would tell the stories of the strange monsters that lived beneath the sea or in the marshes and dark forests. They were brave but superstitious. So this is the background of Beowulf. 2. The Epic and Beowulf

English literature began with Anglo-Saxons’ settlement. A few relics are kept of English

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literature some poems and songs by Anglo-Saxons gleemen or ministers who sign the heroic deeds of old times to the chief and warrior in the feasting hall. Beowulf is the national epic of Anglo-Saxons’ English people. Epic

It’s a long poem that tells the story of what the Gods or the people and in the ancient time. It also means a book a poem or a film that tells a long story, such as Beowulf.

A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated. Many epics were drawn from an oral tradition and were transmitted by song and recitation before they were written down. 三、Plot of Beowulf

1．Has more than 3183 lines

2. Content：three adventures : Monster( Grendel ) / Grendel’s mother ( shemonster ) / Fire dragon

Grendel is a younger generation of Cain. Cain is Eve and Adam’s first son, who killed Abel because of jealousy. Cain was cruel and bloody.

Beowulf is the nephew of Hygelac, king of the Dane, is in great trouble. Herothgar has built a great hall, but a terrible monster Grendel visits the hall from night to night and carries the warriors away, so the hall is deserted. On hearing the news, Beowulf sails for Denmark with 14 companions to fight the monster. After a feast welcome, Beowulf and his companions lie down in the hall for the night. Then Grendel appears, size and devours one of Beowulf’s companions. He next attacks Beowulf who grapples with him single-hand. Because weapons don’t avail against him. After a terrible hand to hand fighting, Grendel retreats leaving one of his arm with Beowulf. The next night, the hall is once more full of merriments and songs.

But Grendel has a mother; he comes to avenge her son’s death by carrying away the chief chancellor of Horothgar. Beowulf and his companions follow the bloody trail to the bank of a lake. Beowulf jumps into the water, finds the old his monster and follows her into the hole under the waves. In the fighting, his sword fails to bite, he almost gets the worst of it, if he hasn’t by chance seized a big sword left by the giants of old time. With it, he cuts off the head of the she monster; there he finds the body of Grengel and he cuts off his head as well. With the trophies ,he goes back to the hall, the triumph is celebrated by feasting and song. And Beowulf seeks the land of Geats.

But he becomes king and reigns over his people for 50 years. And then a fire dragon comes out of his den, and it uses its fire to burn people. Beowulf is an old man now, he goes to seek the dragon with eleven companions，he fights it single-handed. Again the sword fails to bite and the hero is enveloped in flames. The dragon is killed at last, but Beowulf is fatally wounded, too. The poem ends with the funeral of the hero. 3. Brief character analysis

Beowulf is a grand hero; he is so simply by his deeds. He is faithful to his people; he goes alone in a strange land to venture himself for the deliverance of his people. He forgets himself in face of death, though the poem was written in the tenth century. Its hero is undoubtedly the product of primitive tribal society on the continent. It was put together in England, on the basis of lays brought from northern Europe by the minstrels. The historical significance of Beowulf is that it reflects the features of the tribal society in ancient times. 4. Features of Beowulf

The use of alliteration, metaphor and understatement

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 Alliteration means in alliterative verse accentual words in a line begin with the same

consonant sounds. There are generally 4 accentual words in a line, 3 of which show alliteration.  Metaphor For example:

Swan’s path sea Whale’s road sea Sea wood ship  Understatement

Not troublesome very welcome

Need not praise a right to condemn

Beowulf is the oldest poem in the English language. It is the most important specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, and also the oldest surviving epic in the English language.

Chapter 3 Feudal England

一、Background——Feudal England 1. The Danish Invasion

About 787, the English began to be troubled by bands of Danish Vikings. At first, the Danes came only to rob something. Gradually, they came to make permanent settlements. 2. The Norman Conquest

The French-speaking Normans under Duke William came in 1066. After defeating the English at Hastings, William was crowned as King of England. William the Conqueror ruled England with a high hand, depriving the peasants of their lands. By this means he pushed England well on its way to feudalism, and the Norman Conquest marks the establishment of feudalism in England.

The Norman Lords spoke French, the scholars wrote in Latin, the courtiers wrote in French and English language from common people in 11th century. By the end of 14th century, Norman and English intermingled. English was once more the dominant language in the country. The structure of the language remain English and the common word almost kept. But many terms employed by the Normans were adapted into English

Feudalism included 2 classes: Landlord and peasants. The landlords occupied a great of land. The peasant toiled every year and paid rent. They also had uprisings, but it couldn’t destroy the feudalism. It had surely shaken the feudalism in England. 二、Literary Trends in this Period 1. Definition of Romance

The most popular trends is Romance in feudal England. Romance is a long composition, sometimes in verse, sometimes in prose, describing the life and adventures of noble hero. The main character of romance was a knight, a man of noble birth and skilled in the use of weapons. He was commonly described as riding forth to seek adventures or fighting for his lord in battle. He was devoted to the church and the king. The rules governing the minds and morals as a knight was known as chivalry骑士精神. 2. The Class Feature of Romance

The theme of loyalty to king and lord was repeatedly emphasized in romance, as loyalty was the corner-stones of feudal morality.

The romances were either recited by professional minstrels吟游诗人 or written to be read aloud. But in both cases the audience was usually that of the court or of the castle. The

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romance had nothing to do with the common people. They were composed for the noble.

During this period, there was only one book existed, ―the Piers, the Ploughmen‖. It is a long poem of more than 7000 lines. The author was living from 1330 to 1400. it was written in the old alliterative verse 头韵. Each lines contained 3 alliterated words, 2 of which were placed in the first half, the third was placed in the second half.

The poem tells us a series of wonderful dreams the author dreamed. Through these dreams, we can see a picture of the life in feudalism English. 三、 The English Ballads

While most of the written literature in feudal England was intended only for the upper classes, the English people had a literature of their own, in the form of songs and ballads. The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad. 1. The definition of Ballads

Ballad is a story told in song, usually in 4-line stanzas, with the 2nd and 4th lines rhymed. When the ballad singers song, the audience joined in the refrain副歌, which was usually followed each stanza. The ballads are various English and Scottish dialects. No one knows who wrote them. They were handed down from mouth to mouth. Most of them were not recorded until they had passed through centuries of life on the lips of the people. They are mainly the literature of the peasants, and from the ballads, the reader can understand the outlook of English common people living in the feudal society. The themes of ballads are various in kind:

a) the struggle of young lovers against their feudal families b) the conflict between love and wealth c) the cruel effect of jealousy

d) the criticism of the civil war and matters of class struggle.

Among them, Robin Hood ballads are the most famous work. Robin Hood is the representative of men who live in green wood. 2. The Robin Hood Ballads

1) The origin of the ballads of Robin Hood

Robin Hood and his band of outlaws is to be found in the perpetual struggle of the peasants against local officials, against the landlords and against the king’s judges. Robin Hood is a partly historical and partly legendary character. According to some historian, Robin Hood was a Saxon by birth, an outlaw, but he only robbed the rich and took them to the poor and needs.

2) The character of Robin Hood

The character of Robin Hood is many-sided, strong, brave and clever, he is at the same time tender-hearted and affectionate. He is a man with twinkle in his eye, a man fond of a merry joke and a hearty laugh, but the dominant key in his character is his hatred for the cruel oppressor and his love for the poor. His particular enemies are the upper ranks of the nobility—earls伯爵,barons男爵,archbishops, bishops and abbots.

Another feature is his reverence for the King. For example, the King appears in the ballads as an intermediary中间人between the outlaws and the officials and judges as the humorous and understanding guest in the green wood, feasted on his own stolen deer. In fact, the King was the representative of the nobility.

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Chapter 4 Geoffrey Chaucer

一. His Life

He is the founder of English poetry. He was born in 1340 in London. He was the son of a wine merchant who had connection with the court, so he had opportunity to go abroad. When he was 19, he went to France and one of the campaigns of the Hundred Years war. He served in the army and was taken prisoner. On his return, he married. His wife was a maid of honor to the queen and the sister of the Duke of Lancaster. So several times, he was taken to Italy. Then he was appointed controller of customs of London. He was also a member of parliament in 1386. He died in 1400 and was buried in Westminster in the poets corner. Several portraits of Chaucer have survived. He was rather short with a thoughtful face and downcast eyes, a shy silent man, but shrewdly observant. Chaucer’s learning was wide in scope. He obtained a good knowledge of French, Italy and Latin. He was versed in French poetry. He had read the masterpieces of Italy poetry and prose. He also started many of philosophy work of his time. He was an admirer of Latin authors. He knew the knowledge of astronomy. In his varied life, Chaucer acquired an abundant knowledge of the World, which is essential for a writer, so no man of his day could have been equipped socially and intellectually to be the founder of English poetry. So he was regarded as ―the founder of the English Poetry‖. 二、His literary Career

Chaucer’s literary career can be divided into 3 periods:

The first period called French period, it also called the period of translation. Eg: The Book of the Duchess《公爵夫人之书》

The second period called Italian period. It also called the period of adaption. Eg: Troilus and Criseyde. 《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》

The third period called English period is also called the period of creation. Eg：The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》

Troilus and Criseyde《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》

It is a long poem, the story is taken from a famous Italian writer. It tells the story of love between Troilus a son of the king Troy and Criseyde a daughter of priest who foreknowing the fall of Troy, so he escaped to the Greek but leave his daughter in Troy .his daughter returned and fall in love with Troilus, but an exchange of prisoner is arranged and Criseyde is send to Greek camp. Troilus and another guy meet in the field but neither killed each other .Troilus is at last killed by Achilles. Chaucer didn’t give us a full and finished romance，but endowed it with what medieval romance lacked—interest of character as well as of incident. 三、The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》

The Canterbury tales is Chaucer’s masterpiece and one of the monumental works in English literature. Outline of the story

The whole poem is a collection of stories strung together with a simple plan. One spring day, the poet is in the Tabard Inn at the south end of London Bridge. Here he meets 29 other pilgrims ready for a journey of 60 miles on horse back to Canterbury. Chaucer joins them. The host of the inn offers to join them. After his suggestion, they agree to tell stories during the journey. Each is to tell 2 stories going and 2 returning. The best story-teller shall be treated with a fine supper at the judge of the contest. The host is to be the judge of the contest. This gigantic plan means there should be a great collection of 128 stories. Actually only 24 were written and 2 unfinished. Though unfinished, these tales cover all the major types of medieval

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literature, romance of knight and ladies’ folk tales, merry and moral, animal stories, stories of travels and adventures.

The stories are in various kinds. The poet succeeds in linking them in 2 ways of connections:

1) The host serves to connect the first to the last tale. He gives a unity to the whole work, such as inviting, criticizing, admiring and denouncing, but always keeping himself in evidence.

2) There is also an intimate connection between the tales and prologue序诗. Both complemented each other. It is very necessary to read the corresponding portion of the prologue with each tale. The prologue

The prologue provides a framework for the tales. It has a grope of vivid sketches of typical medieval figures. All classes of the English feudal society except the royalty and the poorest peasants. They are knight, prioress, wealthy tradesman, drunken cook, humble plowman, doctor and oxford scholar. Oxford scholar is highly skilled in logic, but he was hollow cheeks and poorly dressed. His cloak was threadbare because he could not get any living. Finally in the center of the group is a wife of bath, the owner of a large cloth factory. Every figure is drawn with the accuracy of portrait. It is no exaggeration to say that the prologue supplies a miniature of the English society. Looking of this word-pictures, reader at once know how people live in that era. That is why Chaucer has been called \"the founder of English realism\".

四、The wife of Bath《巴斯妇》

She is the owner of a cloth factory, lighthearted merry, vulgar and very talkative. Somebody in the party starts her to talk about her husbands and she tells her married life. She has married 5husbands and she expects one or two more. In one way or another, she has always been able to master her husbands and to rule the house. Sometimes she managed it because the husband was old and she was young. There was one husband whom she could not master. But she gets the better of him by provoking him to beat her and pretends to be dead. By this trick she succeeds in getting all the property into her hand. For all she did she justifies herself by quoting texts from the bible in the most extraordinary comments. Thus we may see a very vivid sketch of a woman of the middle class, and a colourful picture of domestic life of that class in Chaucer's day.

五、Social Significance

1）Chaucer’s poetry is plainly narrative. Everything is based on reality but the Canterbury tales is more than true-to-life picture. Chaucer affirms men and women's right to pursue their happiness and oppose the dogma of asceticism preached by the church.

2) As a forerunner of humanism, he praises man's energy, intellect, quick wit and love of life. His tales expose and satirize the evils of his time.

3) Living in a transitional period, Chaucer is nothing revolutionary in his writing, though he lived in a period of peasant rising. While praising man's right to earthly happiness, he sometimes likes to crack a rough joke and paint naturalistic pictures of sexual life. These are Chaucer’s limitations. But his achievement as a great poet is more important. 六、 Comment on Chaucer

Chaucer is the first English short-story teller and the founder of English poetry as well as the founder of English realism with humors irony and satire, he describes the true-to-life characters like neighbors. He is the first to bring the atmosphere of romantic interest about men

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and women and the daily work of one’s own world. So he is the master of English language, the greatest in middle ages. 七、Chaucer’s language

Chaucer’s language, now called Middle English, is vivid and exact. He is a master of world-picture. His verse is among the smoothest in English. Chaucer’s contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact that he introduced from France the rhymed stanza of various types, especially the rhymed couplet of 5 accents in iambic meter五步抑扬格 to English poetry instead of the Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse..

Though drawing influence from France, Italian and Latin models, he is the first great poet who wrote in the current English language. His production of so much excellent poetry was an important factor in establishing English as the literary language of the country. The spoken English of the time consisted of several dialects and Chaucer did much in making the dialect of London the standard for the modern English speech.

Part Two The English Renaissance Chapter 1 Old English in England

一、Social and Political Background 1. The New Monarchy

At the end of the Hundred Years’ war with France (1337-1453), England was again blown into the Civil War. The wars of the roses (1455-1483) between the House of Lancaster and York struggling for the crown continued for 30 years. The nobility as a class suffered great losses with this self-destruction. The King of England being always threatened with the violence and insubordination of the noble lords, so king wanted to gain great power than before and Henry Ⅶ taking advantage of this situation founded the Tudor dynasty, a centralized monarchy of a totally new type, which met the need of the rising bourgeoisie, and so won its support.

2. The Reformation

The king of England had the conflict with the Roman Catholic Church in England. It was started by Henry Ⅷ. He declared the break with Roman and carried out a series of plan and confiscated the property of the church, and enrich the new bourgeois nobility. The new religious dogma known as Protestantism had been gaining ground among the population. And the Protestant Reformation was in essence a political movement in the religious guise伪装, a part of long struggle of the bourgeois class for power but the Reformation was followed closely by the counter-reformation. During the region of Queen Mary (1553-1558) hundred of protestants新教徒 both famous churchman and obscure peasants were burned a heretics. The bloody religious persecution came to a stop after the church settlement of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603).

3. The English Bible

Before the Reformation the Latin Bible was used by the Catholic churches. The common people who did not understand the Latin could only hear the Bible interpreted by the priest. The English translation of the bible appeared as a result of a struggle. During hundreds of years, the translation of the Bible into the English language was carried on by many hands. Then appeared the Authorized Version (钦定本)，which was made in 1611, under the leadership of James I. Sometimes it was called the King James Bible. 4. The Commercial Expansion

The progress in industry at home stimulated the commercial expansion abroad. Queen

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Elizabeth encouraged exploration and travel , so a lot ships went to America and other distant continents. Bring back with them great fortunes that enriched and strengthened the Crown. They also established the first English colonies. 5. The War with Spain

Spain and England had a struggle over the sea, a war brake out in 1588. England got the victory and destroyed the Spain fleet ―Armada‖ It was also the triumph of the rising young bourgeoisie over the declining old feudalism. Up to 1588the English Bourgeoisie had been fighting for the existence after that the fought for power. In this way the English bourgeoisie came to the front of the history. 6. The Renaissance and Humanism

The rise of the bourgeoisie showed its influence in the field of cultural life. The result is an intellectual movement known as the Renaissance. It sprang first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread over Europe. There are two striking features in this movement:

First it is a thirsting curiosity for the classical literature. Old manuscripts were dug out. There arose a study of Greek and Latin authors. While people learned to admire their works as model of literary form, they caught something in spirit very different form the medieval Catholic document. So the love of classic was but an expression of the general dissatisfaction at the Catholic and feudal ideas.

Another feature of the Renaissance is the keen interest in the activities of humanity. People ceased to look upon themselves as living only for God and a future world. Thinkers, artists and poets arose who gave expression, sometimes in an old guise, to the new feeling of admiration for human beauty and human achievements. Hence arose the thought of Humanism. Humanism is the key note of the Renaissance. Humanism reflected the new outlook of the rising bourgeois class, which saw the world opening before it. 7. The Beginning of the English Renaissance

The renaissance was slow in reaching England. In Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, We can see the Italian influence the introduction of printing to England by William Caxton brought classical works within reach of the common multitude.

In the days of Henry Ⅷ （1509-1517）. There were a group of scholars called Oxford Reformers who introduced the classical literature to England and strove to reform education on a humanistic line. These new Humanist were all churchmen themselves, but they thought to imbue 灌输their old faith with new thought. Among them, the most famous is Thomas More.

Chapter 2 Thomas More

1. His life

Thomas More was born in a middle class family. His father was a prominent lawyer, and later a judge. A scholar by nature, he became a lawyer. Early elected to Parliament, he acted as the spokesman of London merchants. In this way, he was brought into close touch with national affairs, and finally was drawn into the service of the Crown. In 1529 he became Lord Chancellor of England under Henry VIII. As a middle-class intellect, he felt the need of pushing forward out of the confines of feudal society, to consolidate a strong enlightened national government. But as a humanist, he was disgusted 厌恶with the measures and the corrupt life of Henry VIII. The King wished to make use of More’s reputation for learning and his influence to cover his own corrupt policies. So More found himself frequently in disagreement from the King. In 1532, he has to resign because of his opposition to Henry’s divorce and his church policy. Then More was sent to the London Tower.

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2. \"Utopia\"

\"Utopia\" is More's masterpiece, written in the form of a conversation between More and Hythloday希斯拉德, a returned voyager. It is divided into two books. The first book contains a long discussion on the social conditions of England (present). In the second books described in detail an ideal communist society (future): Utopia. The name \"Utopia\" comes from two Greek words meaning \"no place\" and was adopted by More as the name of his ideal common wealth. \"Utopia\": Book One

\"Utopia\" is a picture of contemporary England. More's eyes were fully opened to the evil reality of his time. His political insight shows itself in his exposure of the \"rich men's conspiracy against the poor\".

So More was one of the first to see the relation between wealth and poverty, to understand that the rich were becoming richer because they were finding new and more effective ways of robbing the poor. In conclusion, More points out that the root of poverty is the private ownership of social wealth. \"Utopia\": Book Two

We have a sketch of an ideal commonwealth in some unknown ocean, where property is held in common and there is no poverty. More understood that the principle from everyone according to his capacities. This is the only practical basic for communist society. In Utopia, the main work of the manager is to control and organize the economic life of the country. He touched upon the question of the separation of town and country. He solved it by co-operation between them. More emphasizes the importance of labour for every member of the Utopia society.

3. His Limitation

1) Though he was a great thinker, More was no revolutionary in the sense of wishing to arouse the people or to start any revolutionary movement among the exploited class. As the merchants’ spokesman, he shared much of his outlook in spite of his real concern for people's sufferings.

2) More, living in a world based on handicraft production, was faced with the very real problems of social productivity. In his Utopia, he solved it partly by reducing wants through the abolition of luxury and partly by the system of bondsmen.

3) Living in the Middle Ages, More could see what was wrong and what was needed, but he could never find at that time the means by which socialism could be realized. Only after the birth of scientific socialism is it possible for man to realize the dream of More and the other Utopian socialists.

Chapter 3 The Flowering of English Literature

一. The flourishing of Literature

In the second half of 16th century, which is sometimes called Elizabeth period. The English Renaissance began to develop into a flowering of literature and then England became \"a nest of singing birds\".

1. Translation occupied an important place in the English Renaissance . To supply the growing demand of the public, classical and Italian and French works were turned into English. 2. Another kind of literature prevailing at the time was the large amount of books describing discoveries and adventures. Queen Elizabeth encouraged exploration and travel.

3. The vigour of the age, found better expression in the sphere of poetry. There were so many lyrical voices in that period. The sonnet, an exact form of poetry in 14 lines of iambic

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pentameter intricately rhymed, was introduced to England from Italy by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard.

二. Edmund Spenser 1. His life:

He was called\" the poets' poet\". He was born in the minor noble family, his father was a merchant in London. He was first educated at merchant Tailor's school. The poet was very lucky to meet his teacher an enlighten scholar for his headmaster. It is not a mind not a body that we have to educate but man. This conception of education was a new thing at that time. Then Spenser studied at Cambridge where he read the classics and Italian poets and wrote poems. He left the Cambridge in 1576. In 1597, he wrote \"The Shepherd's Calendar\". This is a poem in the traditional pastoral 田园诗and his first important work. It is called The Shepherd's Calendar, because its 12 eclogues牧歌are assigned to the 12 months of the year, and put into mouth of speakers, disguising themselves as shepherds, though reality representing Spenser and his friends.

In 1850, Spenser was made private secretary load grey, in Ireland. For 10 years Spenser spent his life as a secretary. In Ireland, he also wrote his masterpiece :\"The Faerie Queen\". His house burnt down in uprising in 1599, and he flied to London and died in the same year. He was buried beside Chaucer in Westminst Abbey威敏斯特教堂. 2. The Faerie Queen

The Faerie Queen is Spenser's great work. It is a long poem planned in 12 books, of which he finished only 6. The work was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth.

The plan if the whole poem is this: The \"Faerie Queen\"(signifying Queen ElizabethⅠ) holds a feast of 12 days, and in each day a stranger in distress appears, asking for help against a dragon or giant or tyrant. A knight is assigned to each guest, and the 12 books were to describe the 12 adventures. Further each knight represents a virtue, a Holiness神圣, Temperance, Chastity纯洁, Friendship, Justice and Courtesy. So the long poem is a continue allegory寓言. The knights as a whole symbolize England and evil figures stand for her enemies. The dominating thoughts of the poem are nationalism, humanism and puritanism, all typical of the poet's age. But these new ideas are expressed under the guise of medieval knighthood. Here modernism and medievalism are blended, but they are at the same time harmonized by the beauty of sound and of colour in the Spenserian poetry. 3. Spenserian Stanza.

\"The Faerie Queen\" is written in a special verse from that consist of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by a nine line of six iambic feet, with the rhym scheme \"ababbcbcc\". This form has since been called the Spenserian Stanza. 4. Spenser's Position in English Literature

Spenser is the first master to make that language the natural music of his poetry. His Shepherd’s Calendar marked the budding of the Renaissance flower in the northern island of England. In the meantime, the language had undergone a lot of changes. So it was called ―Modern English‖ to distinguish it from middle English of Chaucer’s day. Spenser is the first master to make that language of the natural music of his poetic effusions感情流露.

He also wrote down some sonnets十四行诗; 商籁诗. His sonnets are the most famous sonnets of the Elizabeth’s age. His Fairy Queen expressed some new ideas through allegory which gets more and more complex as books go on. But one thing is clear, he has woven wonderful frames and sang wonderful songs in the 6 books. He is a master musician and a

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great painter. Many of the allusions典故 in the Fairy Queen had lost their meanings to most readers, but Spenser had helped his position as a model of poetical art among the Renaissance English poets, and his influence can be traced in the works of Milton, Shelley and Keats.

Chapter 3 Francis Bacon

If the imaginative powers of literary creation, the English Renaissance found expression in poetry of Spenser and drama of Shakespeare. The intellectual energy of the age showed itself in the achievement of Francis Bacon, the founder of the English materialist philosophy. 1. His Life

He was born in the family of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Keeper of the Privy Seal掌玺大臣 to Queen Elizabeth. So he had the opportunity to have the connections with the court. He early won the favor of the Queen. He soon became one of the most successful lawyer of the time. At last he became Lord Chancellor. So he made enemies in the court, and he was charged of the bribery. He was deprived his office fined and banished from London in 1621. And then he died in aged disgrace 2. His Achievement

Bacon was the founder of modern science in England. He is very famous for his \"essays\". Ten of them were published in 1597 as notes of his observations. The collection was reissued and enlarged in 1612 and again in 1625, when it included 58essays. These essays cover a wide variety of subjects, such as love, truth, friendships, parents and children, beauty, studies, riches, youth and age, garden, death and many others. They have won popularity for their clearness, brevity, precision and force of its expression. Many of his sentences have become wise old sayings. \"men fear death as children fear to go in the dark\\"reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man\English essayist and materialist. But he is not good in virtue .

Chapter 4 Drama

一、Early Drama

There are several kinds of early drama: the miracle plays, the morality plays, the mystery plays and interlude plays. 1. Miracle Play 神迹剧

The highest glory of English Renaissance was unquestionably drama. English drama had roots reaching back to miracle plays of Middle Ages. The ―miracles‖ were simple plays based on Bible stories, such as the creation of the world, Noah and the flood and the birth of Christ. They were at first performed in the churches, but gradually the actor introduced the comical elements into the performance. The priests forbidden plays in the church, the players went to the market place, usually performing on a wagon, stopping at chosen places. 2. The Morality Play

The morality plays were a little latter than the miracle plays. A morality play presented the conflict of good and evil with allegorical personages人物, such as mercy, peace, hate, folly and so on. The morality was therefore a somewhat kind of performance with the endless speech-making of those abstract characters. 3. Interlude

This is a new kind of drama called ―interlude‖, a short performance slipped into a play to enliven, the audience after a solemn郑重的scene. 4. The Classical Drama

Meanwhile, through the revival of the classical literature, English playwrights came into

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contact with Greek and Latin drama. From it, they learned all the important rules in structure and style, the more exact conceptions of comedy and tragedy, and the orderly division into five acts幕. Comedies and tragedies on classical models appeared in the middle of the 16th century. ―Gammer Gurton’s Needle‖ is the first English tragedy.

Miracle plays, morality plays, interlude and classical plays — such were the forms of drama prevailing until the reign of Elizabeth. These early plays did much and paved the way for the flourishing of drama.

二、 The London Theatre

In the 16th century London became the centre of English drama. By 1567, professional actors were organized into companies and regular playhouses were built in the outskirts of London. The Elizabethan theaters were wooden buildings, usually circular in form，with tiers of galleries surrounding a roofless pit. The stage was without scenery, footlight or a front curtain. It stood for any place indoors or out；and when scene was finished and the actors had retired, it might represent an entirely different place for the next scene. There were no actresses. Women’s parts were always taken by men. 三、The Audience

Both the gentlemen and the common people went to the theatres. The audience paid a penny and stood throughout performance. And the galleries also had benches and boxes for which higher prices were charged. There were often five or six playhouses giving performances at the same time. This would mean that out of a city of 100,000 inhabitants, there were 30,000 or more spectators at the play within a week. The audience covered almost all classes of Londoners. To most of the spectators, in the ages of no newspapers and few books, it was the only scene of intellectual pleasure. This audience impressed its demands and tastes upon the dramatists, but at the same time, it showed a quick and generous reception. 四. The Playwrights

The companies were in constant need of new plays. They called on men of letters for help. A lot of playwrights, amateur or professional, wrote for the actors. There was a group of so-called ―university wits‖(Lyly, Peele, Marlow, Greene, Lodge and Nash) who wrote for the stage of the time. These playwrights were hard workers. They revised old plays and wrote new ones. They made rapid progress in dramatic technique because they had a close contact with actors and audience. They sold their plays to the drama companies and lived a hand-to-mouth existence. The usual price for a play was only 6 dollar much lower than the price of a costume戏服. The playwrights were mere ―paid wage-laborers‖. But it was these men of letters who furnished the Elizabethan stage with a large part of its works.

Chapter 5 Marlowe

1. His life

The most gifted of the ―university wits‖ was Marlowe (15-1593). Marlowe was the son of shoemaker in Canterbury. In 1578 he entered the King’s School in Canterbury, where he learned to speak and write in Latin. A favourite Renaissance method of teaching boys to speak Latin was training them to act in classical plays.

In 1580 left his home city for Cambridge where he studied for 6 years and got his B.A. and M.A degrees. There he spent a lot of time on divinity神学 according to the tradition of time, but he afterwards bade divinity adieu. He knew astronomy, geography and medical science, and was a diligent student of history. But his chief interest was in classical poetry. He

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even practiced poetic art in Latin.

The college authorities were prejudiced against the scholar because he had turned his back upon the clerical career. Then Marlowe hurried from Cambridge to London.

In 1857, when he was only 23, Marlowe took the London Theatre by storm with his play Tamburlaine. Then other plays followed. He produces 6 plays and several poems.

In spite of Marlowe literary success, a dark cloud had always been hovering over his head. His association with people independent and heretic thought led to charges by the authorities. It was said that Marlowe had written a book against the Bible and would have it printed, but no one dare to print it. At last, he was arrested and killed. Some modern scholar have pointed out that Marlowe was the victim of a planned political murder. He was then 29. Shortly after his death, his friends got all of his poems and plays printed. 2. His Work

Tamburlaine (1587)《帖木儿》

The Jew of Malta (1592) 《马尔他的犹太人》 Doctor Faustus (1588) 《浮士德》

For his first play, Marlowe chose the career of Tamburlaine the Monogol conqueror as the subject-matter. Tamburlaine was a shepherd who finally became a Khan.

The hero of The Jew of Malta is Babaras, a rich merchant and a Tamburlaine. He is greedy of sovereignty. Doctor Faustus

1) Marlowe’s masterpiece is Doctor Faustus. It is based on a German legend. But in Marlowe’s hand, the humanism colour of story becomes more striking. The hero is Doctor Faustus, a young and brilliant scholar. The chief feature is an insatiable thirst for knowledge.

2) In the opening scene, Faustus takes one by one the chief subjects of academic curriculum, philosophy, medicine, law and divinity, and rejects them as insufficient. He is bored with the orthodox curriculum传统的课程, and turns to the study of magic in order to understand and possess the kingdom of the earth. He wanted to learn magic and then met the Devil. The Doctor must sell his soul to the Devil. So he signed the bond with his blood.

3) After the contract with the Devil, Faustus makes a tour in the universe on a dragon’s back. Then he gives a display of his magic art and plays tricks on the Pope at a banquet.

4) Intermingled with the main action there are some comic scenes, in one of which Wagner, the doctor’s servant, is the chief figure. His talk with two scholars is sprinkled with Latin quotations.

5) In Act 5, the doctor is feasting with his friends. One of the scholars declared that his desire was to see Helena. Faustus replied that he would bring her into their presence. And then Helena passed before their eyes. (The climax)

6) Meanwhile, Faustus is drawing near his doom. It is the scholars who are his companions on his last night on earth. So one hour before midnight, Faustus is left to face his awful destiny alone until he is carried away by the Devil. The tragedy of Doctor Faustus is characteristic of humanism of the Renaissance. 3. Social Significance of Marlowe's Plays

1).These plays show, in various ways, the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie, its eager curiosity for knowledge, its towering pride, its insatiable appetite for power whether that be won by military might, knowledge, or gold. In Tamburlaine, it is ambition; in Doctor Faustus, desire for knowledge; in The Jew of Malta, greed for wealth.

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2).The theme of Marlowe's plays is the praise of individuality freed from the restraints of medieval dogmas and law, and the conviction of the boundless possibility of human efforts in conquering the universe. There is a combination of aspiration after power, knowledge and beauty in their ideal forms in his plays.

3).However, the heroes in Marlowe's plays are only individualists. Their individualistic ambition often brings ruin to the world and sometimes to themselves. 4. Marlowe's Literary Achievement

Marlowe was the greatest of the pioneers of English drama. He reformed the English drama and perfected the language and verse of dramatic works. It is Marlowe who first made blank verse ( rhymeless iambic pentameter无韵体) the principal instrument of English drama. His blank verse is a living thing; it is vigorous, fluid and precise. It translates thoughts and emotions into rhythmical speech. His blank verse has been described as ―titanic‖. Marlowe's dramatic achievement lies chiefly in his epical, and at times lyrical, verse.

His work paved the way for the plays of the greatest English dramatist—Shakespeare—whose achievements were the monument of the English Renaissance.

Chapter 6 Shakespeare

一、Three Sources to Know Shakespeare

(1) from church and legal records(dates of his birth, marriage, and death) (2) from folk tradition(residents and neighbors who know him) (3) from comments of his contemporaries

二、Shakespeare’s Life Shakespeare VS 关汉卿 in China

He was born in Stratford-in-Avon, a little village in 15. His father, John Shakespeare was a well-to-do trader in wool and leather articles.

At the age of 7, Shakespeare was sent to a local grammar school which he attended for 6 years. He read widely in books current in his days and picked up Latin and Greek. When he was 14, his father fell into death. So he left school and became a country schoolmaster to support his family.

In 1582, he married to Anne Hathaway who is 8 years older than her boy husband. They had 3 children. Shakespeare was forced to leave Stratford and seek refuge in London.

He arrived in London in 1586 or 1587. At that time, the drama was rapidly gaining popularity among the people. He was said to have kept horses for the gentlemen outside the playhouses. He must have gone through many hardships and undertaken many odd jobs before he became acquainted with certain theatrical companies. Then he became an actor playing minor parts. He must have learnt a lot of techniques of drama from his personal experiences with the stage.

While leading the busy life of an actor, Shakespeare worked hard with his pen. He revised old plays and wrote new ones at the rate of two a year. In his plays, he was always keenly alive to events of contemporary life. His craftsmanship was improved rapidly. So his plays were very popular.

As a play writer, he was much beloved by the actors. He died on April 23rd, the anniversary of his birth in 1616.

Rich experiences of stage and performance laid solid foundations for his writing career.

三、A Chronological List of Shakespeare’s Plays

1. The first period of early apprenticeship ( 1590—1600 ):

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1) King Henry VI, Part II, III 《亨利六世 中、下》1590

King Henry VI, Part I 《亨利六世 上》1591 2) The life and death of Richard III 《里查德三世》1592 3) The Comedy of Errors 《错误的喜剧》《错中错》1592 4) Titus Andronicus 《泰特斯·安庄尼克斯》1593 5) The Taming of the Shrew 《驯悍妇》

6) The Two Gentlemen of Verona 《维洛那二绅士》1594 7) Love’s Labor’s Lost 《爱的徒劳》 《空爱一场》 8) Romeo and Juliet 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》

2. The second period of rapid growth and maturity( 1601—1608 ): 1) The life and death of Richard II 《里查德二世》1595 2) A Midsummer Night’s Dream 《仲夏夜之梦》 3) The life and death of King John 《约翰王》1596 4) The Merchant of Venice 《威尼斯商人》 5) Henry IV, Part I; Henry IV, Part II 《亨利四世》1597

6) Much Ado about Nothing 《无事自扰》 《无事生非》1598 7) King Henry V 《亨利五世》

8) The Merry Wives of Windsor 《温莎的风流女人》 9) The life and death of Julius Caesar 《凯撒大帝》1599

10) As You Like It 《如愿》 《皆大欢喜》 11) Twelfth Night 《第十二夜》1600 3. The third period of Gloom and Sadness( 1609—1612 ):

1) Hamlet, Prince of Denmark 《哈姆雷特》1601 2) Troilus and Cressida 《特洛埃勒斯与克莱西达》1602 3) All’s Well That Ends Well 《终成眷属》

4) Measure for Measure 《恶有恶报》 《一报还一报》1604 5) Othello, the Moore of Venice 《奥塞罗》 6) King Lear 《李尔王》 1605 7) Macbeth 《麦克白》《麦克佩斯》

8) Antony and Cleopatra 《安东尼与克莉奥佩特拉 》1606 9) The tragedy of Coriolanus 《科利奥兰纳斯 》1607 10) Timon of Athens 《雅典的泰蒙》 4.The fourth period of calm after storm: 1) Pericles 《波里克利斯》1608

2) Cymbeline, king of Britain 《辛柏林》1609 3) The Winter’s Tales 《冬天的故事》1610 4) The Tempest 《暴风雨》1612 5) King Henry VIII 《亨利八世》 四. The Key Notes of the Comedies

1. When Shakespeare wrote these comedies, he was very young. He described young people just freed from feudal fetters束缚. He sang of their youth, love and ideal of happiness. The heroes and the heroines fight against their own destiny and mode their own fate according to their own free will. As the sons and daughters of Renaissance, they didn’t trust in king or god but in themselves. Their efforts and good faith are crowed with success. The general spirit of these comedies is optimistic.

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There are 2 groups of characters in Shakespeare’s comedies.

(1) The young men and the young women who are living in the world of youth, dreams, and laughter and fight for their happiness.

(2) The simple and shrewd clowns and other common people who keep things going, such as shepherds, waiting-maids, attendants.

2、The Heroines’ Features in Shakespeare’s comedies

1). In Shakespeare’s comedies, we can find an expression of his struggling unreserved attitude toward women. This attitude was characteristic of progressive role of the bourgeoisie in its revolutionary period. These plays show in different ways. Shakespeare respected for the dignity, honesty, wit, courage, determination and resourcefulness of women. Though there are moments of weariness厌倦and frailty脆弱, their courage never fails them in the time of danger.

2). In the ideal women of Shakespeare’s comedies, the heart and head sway equal. This is the best representative. Portia is a woman of the Renaissance, beautiful, prudent精明, cultured and courteous谦恭 and capable rising to an emergency. She is one of Shakespeare’s ideal women. The young heroines in Shakespeare’s comedies are always independent and always take their own part of life.

3). Julia is the heroine of The Two Gentlemen of Verona. When Julia decided to leave her home in disguise to persue her love, she wouldn’t even leave a message to her father. Heroine in this play is no longer the woman who clings to the father and her husband. Shakespeare’s heroines are a new type. They are happy and make others happy. They carry their destiny with them and speak or think like a man. They are equal to men or even superior. In a word, they are the daughters of the Renaissance.

五、The Histories ( Say several words about his historical plays )

The main idea of these plays is the necessity for national unity undergone sovereigh. At his time, this idea was anti-feudal in nature, and it summed up the general ideas of rising bourgeoisie in Shakespeare’s time.

These historical plays covered 2 centuries of English history from Richard II (1377—1399) to Henry VIII (1509-1547). They show the horrors of civil war, the necessity for national unity, the responsibilities of an efficient ruler and the importance of legitimate succession to the throne. These ideas were a very important interest to Elizabeth audience. Shakespeare’s own political are best mouthed by the gardener in Richard II. So through this simple man, Shakespeare raised his voice against the privileged classes.

Like the majority of humanist of his time, Shakespeare believed in a wise and humane king who would live to serve his country. But in the historical plays, Shakespeare’s treatment of real English king is very critical. Richard II is condemned for his vanity, political blindness and inability to subdue the feudal lords. Richard III is represented as a king of strong-willed and vicious, who came to power through a series of horrible crimes and turned his country into a devil. And Henry IV, though glorified for his suppression of the rebellion of feudal lords, is criticized for his rebellion of the feudal laws. He is criticized for the participation in the murder of Richard II. In Shakespeare’s historical plays, there is only one ideal king—Henry V, though his real prototype little differed from other kings. The Merchant of Venice ( comedy )

The story is Italian in origin. A young Venetian Bassano is making preparation to court Portia, who is a beauty. He is in need of money and turns to his friend, Antonio, a merchant in Venice, for help. But Antonio’s money is invested in ships now at sea. To help Bassano in his

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courtship, he borrows money from Shylock, a Jewish usurer.

Shylock, who has suffered in the hands of Christians, agrees to lend the required sun on condition that if the money was not paid by a certain date, he should cut a pound of fresh from Antonio. Bassano goes to Portia’s house and is expected by Portia in marriage. But Antonia can not pay the debt for the ship doesn’t return on time, so he stands in danger. The Jew demands the pound of fresh. And the case is brought before the court. At a critical moment, a young doctor of law arrives in Venice. The case is tried before him and the Jew is justified by his bond. The young doctor appeals to the Jew for mercy in a moving speech, but in vain. Then the doctor warns the Jew that he must fulfill the bond, taking no more or no less than one pound and spilling no drop of blood. Seeing himself cornered, the Jew had no choice but to obey the verdict of the court. The learned doctor is no other but Portia in disguise.

The play ends in a lovely moonlight scene at Belmonte, in which Portia reveals her identity to the pleasant surprise of her husband Bassano.

In Shakespeare’s comedies, we can see the expression of his ungrudging unreserved equalitarian attitude towards women. This attitude is very typical for the progressive role of the bourgeoisie in its revolutionary period. These plays show in different ways Shakespeare’s respect for dignity, honest, wit, courage, determination, and resourcefulness of the women. Though there are moments of worries and frailty, there courage never fails them in time of danger. With affection and anxiety, they grow stronger and more capable of coping with the situation. In the ideal women of Shakespeare’s comedies, the heart and the head are equal. Portia is a typical model.

Portia is a woman of Renaissance, beautiful, prudent, and cultured courteous and capable of rising to an emergency. She is one of Shakespeare’s ideal women.

The young heroines in Shakespeare’s comedies are always independent in character and take their own path of life. Shakespeare’s heroines are of a new type. They are witting, bold, loving, optimistic, and faithful. They are happy and make others happy. They carry their destinies with them and in speaking, thinking as well as in feeling are men’s equals or even superiority. In a word, they are daughters of Renaissance. Romeo and Juliet (comedy)

1. Plot: Romeo and Juliet is Shakespeare' early success in comedy. It takes place in Verona. Romeo and Juliet, the pair of young lovers, belonging to two hostile families, Montague and Capulet. Each is devoted to the other, but the union is impossible. Romeo kills a Capulet and is banished. Juliet is engaged by her parents to somebody else for whom she has no affection. Juliet consults Laurence, a priest, who suggests a daring plan to relieve her from the forced marriage and give Romeo an opportunity to take her away. She takes a sleeping drug and appears to die for 42 hours. She is taken to the tomb. Romeo is informed of Juliet’s funeral. And comes back in a hurry to the tomb and killed him just before Juliet wakes. Finally, Juliet wakes only to find Romeo has died and kills herself.

2. Comments: Romeo and Juliet are images of true love, symbols of faithfulness. They are the children of Renaissance. The play is optimistic in spirit. It’s a song of youth, love, wit and courage of the new rising young man and women, against the feudalism. The play is full of poetry and romance. Its scenes of youth and love are painted in brilliant colors. There is no sign of pessimism in the play. That’s why it's a favorite with young English men.

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The Great Tragedies 1. Hamlet

\"Hamlet\" is considered the summit of Shakespeare's art. The story comes from an qld Danish legend. Before Shakespeare, it was a tragedy of \"blood and thunder\but under Shakespeare's pen, the medieval story assumed a new meaning.

The story took place in Denmark. Gertrude, Queen of Denmark, widowed by the sudden death of king, within two months marries the late king’s brother Claudius, who thus becomes the new king. Prince Hamlet, the son of the late king, returns home from the university. He carry a pot, near the king. He suspects his uncle, Claudius. Then his father’s ghost appears to him and confirms his suspicion, he undertakes to avenge the murder. To dull Claudius’s vigilance, Hamlet pretends to go mad. However, his madness is taken by the old courtier, Polonius, whose daughter Ophelia fell in love with Hamlet. At this moment, a group of players visits the castle, and Hamlet has a play acted, which resembles the late king’s murder. Claudius is disturbed by the performance and leaves the hall before the play is finished. Hamlet is summoned by his mother who tells him that he has offended the king. Hamlet reveals Claudius’ baseness and expresses his anger at her hasty marriage. Then hamlet becomes aware that he is being overheard in the conversation. Thinking it is Claudius that is hiding, he run his sword to kill the person. So Polonius was killed. To get rid of Hamlet, Claudius sends him to England and asks others to kill him on the voyage. Heart-broken at the death of her father, poor Ophelia goes mad and is drowned in a stream. Hamlet returns at Ophelia's funeral. In the graveyard, he had a quarrel with Laertes, Ophelia's brother. Laertes vows to avenge the death of his father and sister, with him Claudius conspires to do away the Hamlet. After the funeral, Claudius arranges that Laertes is to challenge Hamlet to friendly duel and kill him with a poisoned rapier. In the sword play, Laertes wounds Hamlet but himself struck by Hamlet with the same poisoned rapier. Before death, Laertes reveals the plot to Hamlet. The queen at this moment had drunk from a poisoned cup intended for Hamlet. Hamlet then in a passion stabs Claudius. The queen dies, Claudius dies. Laertes dies, Hamlet dies. At the end, Fortinbras becomes the new King.

The Character of Hamlet

Without knowledge of his character, Hamlet's story would hardly be intelligible. Hamlet is neither a frail and weak-minded youth nor a thought-sick book-worm. Though he is deprived of his right to the throne, he is still loved and respected by everyone. Such a man cannot be a man of mere books. Though a scholar, he is at the same time fearless and impetuous in action. We see him rushing after the Ghost, killing Polonius, dealing with Claudius' agents on the ship, boarding the pirate, leaping into the grave and at last executing his revenge. A mere book-worm can never do any of these things.

1] Hamlet is a humanist, a man who is free from medieval prejudices and superstitions. He has an unbounded love for the world instead of the heaven.

2] He loves goodness and hates evil. He adores his father, loves Ophelia and greets his school-fellows with hearty welcome.

3] His intellectual genius is outstanding. He is a close observer of men and manners. He easily sees through people. His quick perception drives him to penetrate below the surface of things and question what others take for granted. So he is forever unmasking his world. From these we may know that Hamlet is not a mere scholar, and his nature is by no means simply meditative. On the contrary, Hamlet is a man of genius, highly accomplished and educated, a

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man of far-reaching perception and sparkling wit. He is a scholar, soldier and statesman. His image reflects the versatility of the men of the Renaissance. 2. Othello

This story took place in Venice, the city of canals. Othello is a splendid general. In the service has wedded Desdemona, a daughter of senator. She knows the noble quality beneath the dark skin. She also loved his manhood and danger he has passed though. Iago tells Desdemona’s father in dirty words. So in the senate, the senator accused him of kidnapping his daughter with spells and withcraft. Othello in plain and noble words tells the story of his love and Desdemona tells how she falls in love with Othello. Desdemona’s father resigned. Then Othello and his wife set off for Cyprus, a small country. Iago goes, too, with Roderigo, the foolish suitor of Desdemona and Cassio. Othello and Desdemona live happily together, but Iago designs a plot to wreck their love and life. He makes a quarrel between Cassio and Roderigo, dismissal of Cassio by Othello. Then he said that Cassio shall meet Desdemona, asking her to plead for him and bring Othello by at that time, thus arousing Othello’s suspicious. This is the beginning of series of foul. Then Iago manages to get from his wife Emillia a hankerchief belonging to Desdimona, and swear to Othello that Desdemina has given it to Cassio when Desdimoina pleads for Cassio. Othello damands the handkerchief. It is missing. His suspision is confirmed then Iago makes Cassio talk about his mistress and Othello overhears their talking thinking that Cassio is speaking Desdimona. Othello is now assured he stress his wife in public and then in her bedroom he strangles掐死 her inspite of her pleading. Emillia learning this criminal tells the true story of handkerchief. Othello realize his mistake, runs at Iago, wounds him and kills himself. Iago is punished and Casio is made a governor.

Othello is a new man of renaissance. He is a great warrior and too noble minded to suspect those whom he loves .though his skin is dark, he has great moral beauty. He loves Desdemona just because he finds her to be the embodiment of integrity sincerity and loftiness of mind .those qualities together with his youth and beauty make her an ideal of woman, and her love the greatest reward for his long and hard life. That is Othello and Desdemona both belong to the world of fine while Iago represents the dark power of that time which destroy everything that is noble. The tragedy of Othello shows that noble minded people may be led destruction by evil force in dark society and commit mistakes if they can not distinguish between truth and falsehood and between good and evil. Othello is a tragedy of humanism. At the same time, there is the sub-theme of the tragedy, the course of Othello’s loneliness through well known as the solider in high position. Othello has been an alone man in Venice because he’s black. The venetians seem to treat him as one of themselves but to help him to marry one of their daughters is another question. So this is racial prejudice. Iago carryed out his evil plot. He is in the eyes of white gentleman. Here lies the social basis for Iago’s success in wrecking Othello’s happiness. Othello is a tragedy caused by racial prejudice. 3. King Lear

King Lear is one of Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies. It comes from an old English legend. Old Lear King of ancient Britain is a self willed with 3 daughters. He divides his kingdom between his two older daughters. Regan and Goneril who win his trust by their flattering, while he disinherits his youngest daughter Cordelier who has angered by honesty. The King keeping only the title of the king and a hundred knights plans to live with his two older daughters by turns. But soon he comes into contact with the real nature with Regan and Goneril. He is driven from their home and become mad. His youngest daughter who has married to king of France,

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come back with army and help his father. But she is defeated and took into prison. The play ends with the death of Cordelia and Lear.

The theme of King Lear is not only filial ingratitude. This play describes a great social upheaval the miseries of Lear disclosed the essence of corrupt society in which each is ready to destroy each other. There are a lot of images of animals and beasts, such as the bear, the fox, the rat, the wolf, the worm, the dog, the monkey. This is a reflection of jungle law of the age.

At the same time, King Lear also presents Shakespeare’s national unity and responsibility. The root of Lear’s tragedy lies in his insensible and irresponsible division of his kingdom between his two daughters. Result from his mistaking their flattery for genuine in love. Here Shakespeare wants to point out that a king however great he might be, he should responsible to the people if in one way or another. He betrays people’s trust, history will condemn him. 4. Macbeth

Macbeth is a powerful general of Scotland and a national hero, who has distinguished himself by crushing internal and foreign enemies and win golden opinion from all source of people .But his ambition driver him to his castle. He murdered the King and acsended登上 the throne. All of these drive Macbeth deeper and deeper into a set of crimes. Suspected of murder and hated by the noble and people, Macbeth maintain his power to commit one after another. His reign is a chain of heinous crimes. In the opposing army in England led by the last battle, Macbeth is killed

Macbeth is a complicated and contradictory character, courageous and clever. He became the prey of ambition which blended with longing for power drives him to crime. In Macbeth, Shakespeare shows that tyrants and oppressors, strong as they may, are doomed to defeat, is determined by the people. Refusing for support him and rise in arms against him. Macbeth’s fate is in common with that of all old ambitious adventures. Shakespeare's Sonnets:

The sonnet is a poem in 14 lines with one or the other rhyme scheme, a form much in vogue in Renaissance Europe, especially in Italy. They may be roughly divided into three groups. They express strong feeling. They have a density of thought and imagery that makes them seem the quintessence of the poetical experience.

The themes are that the beloved youth will survive through the poet's verse, associated with a handsome man.

Features of Shakespeare's Drama

1. Shakespeare is one of the founders of realism in world literature. Shakespeare makes comment on dramatic performance. Living in the historical period of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, Shakespeare faithfully and vividly reflects, through a host of typical characters in his plays, the major social contradictions of his time. Thus, his historical plays describe the decaying of the old feudal nobility and the rising of the new Tudor monarchy, which represented the interests of English bourgeoisie. He deeply understood the social contradictions of his time.

2. For 400 years, Shakespeare has never lost his appeal to audience and actors of all countries. This is because his plays had good plot and life-like characters. He borrowed his plots widely from Greek legends, Roman history, Italian stories and English chronicles. His characters are often clothed in old, foreign dresses. Their thoughts and feelings belong to Shakespeare's own time, and so his drama becomes a monument of the English Renaissance. Shakespeare wrote about his own people and for his own time.

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3. In about 22 years of his writing careers, Shakespeare gave the world about 40 plays, no 2 of which arose the same feeling or image among the audience. He is not only a dramatist, but also a writer of sonnet and poems, apart from his amusing prolificity. His familiarity with the stage makes him a master hand for every drama, such as comedy, tragedy and historical plays.

4. Shakespeare was skilled in many poetic forms: the song, the sonnet, the couplet, and the dramatic blank verse.

5. Shakespeare was a great master of the English language. He commanded a vocabulary larger than any other English writer. He used about 16,000 words and his influence lasted for a long time. Many of his new coinages and turns of expression have become everyday usage in English life. Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of the English Bible are the two great treasuries of the English language.

6. Shakespeare has been universally acknowledged to be the summit of the English Renaissance, and one of the greatest writers in the world. Ben Jonson本·琼生

Among the many contemporaries and successors of Shakespeare, the famous one was Ben Jonson (1572—1637). Son of a bricklayer, Jonson received a good education. Jonson rose till in his 30s, to be one of the leading dramatists of the day. One of his best—known comedies is Volpone 《狐坡尼》（1606）. Volpone is a miser, greedy for money for its own sake. His method of increasing his wealth is avarice贪婪of men. He pretends to be at the point of death, and his ―suitors‖ who know his love of gain and the fact that he has no heirs继承人, endeavour尽力to sweeten his last moments by giving him rich presents, so that he will leave them all his wealth. But Volpone, wishing to enjoy a general disappointment to the full, draws up a will, in which he bequeaths遗赠 all his property to his servant Mosca. And Mosca, also a cunning fellow, avails himself of the will, proclaims宣告his master dead, and claims possession of Volpone’s wealth, as his heir继承人. But in the end both knaves are exposed and received due punishment: Volpone is imprisoned and his property confiscated, while Mosca is condemned to penal servitude in the galleys（被罚做奴役）.

Jonson was also known as a poet and critic. He was the acknowledged poet scholar and critic of his day. Around him gathered a group of young poets and writers who loved to sit at his feet in a tavern in London, and were proud to call themselves ― son of Ben ‖.

Jonson’s plays were written according to his serious of humourous, unlike Shakespeare, Jonson doesn’t delve钻研 deeply enough into the complexities of the human mind and human relationships. Ben Jonson also insisted on a careful study of the old Greek and the Roman masters. He took a firm stand for the ―three unites‖ (time, place and action) and strongly disapproved of a mixture of serious of humourous episodes插曲in a play. At the same time he demanded a high craftsmanship in play-writing, logical and strict development of plot and truthful and realistic description of life and people. He was a forerunner of classicism in English literature.

Ben Jonson’s works can admire for entertainment, which is quite different from that of Shakespeare.

Part Three The Period of the English Bourgeois Revolution Chapter 1 The English Revolution and the Restoration

1. The Weakening of the Tie Between Monarchy and Bourgeoisie

Until about 1590,the bourgeoisie had many interests in common with those of the monarchy—in the struggles against Spain, against the Roman Catholic Church, against noble

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houses ruining the county with their civil wars. But when all its internal and external enemies hand been crushed, the bourgeoisie had no longer the need of protection of the monarchy. At the same time the Crown wanted to consolidate its position before it was too late. There already had been some conflict between the Queen and the Parliament at the end of Elizabeth’s reign. More and more quarrels rose between James I and Charles I with their parliaments. 2. The Class between the King and Parliament

The major clash is over monopolies. In the reign of James I and Charles I, on such necessities as butter, herrings鲱鱼, salt, beer, and many others were monopolies. At last, the Parliament declared that monopolies without its consent同意were illegal. Charles dissolved it in 1629. For eleven years Charles ruled the country with an absolute government. He relied upon the prerogativecourts as the instruments of his policy. 3. The Outburst of the English Revolution

The various classes in England soon split up into two camps. The opposition leaders in Parliament were supported by many merchants, peasants and also some apprentice 学徒in the city. While around the King were clustered the conservative gentry, the big landlords and the monopolists垄断者. A civil war broke out in 12 and lasted till 19.

At first, the Royalists had some military advantages. Then Oliver Cromwell(1599—1658)，the famous opposition leader, reorganized the Parliamentary forces into the New Model Army. They got a lot of victories. The war soon ended and Charles was captured. But he escaped from captivity, and civil war broke out again until the King was re-captured and executed in 19, as“a public enemy to the good people of this nation. ‖ Monarchy was abolished. England was declared a commonwealth, a republic. 4. The Bourgeoisie Dictatorship and the Restoration

The bourgeoisie dictatorship was established, and Cromwell became the Protector of the English Commonwealth. After the death of Cromwell, Parliament recalled Charles II to England in 1660. Then followed the Restoration period. Many Republicans were killed. But the big bourgeoisies was more afraid of the people’s revolution than of the King’s reaction. It was when James II threatened to restore the old absolute monarchy that the bourgeoisie expelled him and invited William, Prince of Orange, from Holland, to be King of England, in 1688.This was the so-called “Glorious Revolution‖. After a century of England was settled within which capitalism could develop freely.

5. The Religious Cloak of the English Revolution

The English Revolution was carried out under a religious cloak. Religious disputes filled many pages of the political pamphlets of the 17th century: Both sides believed they were fighting God’s battles. But religion covered something more. That is why the English Revolution was sometimes called the Puritan Revolution.

Puritanism was the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during the English Revolution. It preached thrift, hard work and unceasingly labor. And people should control their own ideas. The puritans opposed the old church, so they closed down the London theatres in 12.

6. Literature of the Revolution Period

Much of the English literature of revolution period was concerned with the tremendous social upheavals of the time. In this period, one of the famous poet is John Donne（1572—1631）约翰﹒邓恩 .

John Donne约翰﹒邓恩 .

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He is the founder of Metaphysical School of poetry玄学派, and lived and wrote during the reigh of Elizabeth to Charles I. John Donne’s profession is poetry. Another school of poetry is also famous—caralier distinguished literay骑士精神poets。 John Dryden(1631—1700)约翰﹒德莱顿

The most figure of the Restoration Period was John Dryden, poet, playwright and critic. He is a time—server. In 1659, he wrote an elegy on Cromwell’s death, singing the praise of the Lord Protector. Dryden was a prolific writer. He wrote a lot of plays such as Alexander Feast《亚历山大盛宴》, All for Love《唯有爱》. He was also made Poet Laureate御用诗人. John Bunyan约翰﹒班扬 1.His Life

He is a son of a poor tinker补锅匠. He was born in a very little village in 1621. For a little while, he was sent to school, where he learned to read and write. But soon, he was very busy in his father’s shop, in the glowing pots and the fire and smoke. Like other young villagers, Bunyan loved dancing and reading chivalric骑士精神romances. But he was a young man of innocence. He was never drunk in his life.

Bunyan had a sensitive imagination. At that time, the religious influence made a huge impression on him. In the red furnace火炉where the iron was glowing, and in the dark corners where the shadow crept, he saw strange visions of hell. On hearing the Puritan parson’s牧师preaching against the sin of dancing and games, he gave up all his harmless habits. He often heard his father criticize somebody or something. Under this kind of condition Bunyan grew up. In fact, he led a miserable life in the lowest class.

When he was 17, he joined the Parliament army. Bunyan lived in this period in which political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. At this time, the poor people persisted on their own right to preach their own religion. So there are so many messages who expressed their satire to the church, society and state. They have to express their justice. Bunyan joined them and began preaching among villagers with powerful effects.

After the Restoration, he was put into prison in 1660,for refusing to obey the law prohibiting religious meetings. He was told that if he gave up preaching he would be instantly set free. His answer was ― If you let me out today, I will preach again tomorrow.‖ So he stayed in prison for 12 years. When he was in prison, he made shoelaces, so he earned living for his family. When his hands were busied, he had other employment for his mind. He had various experience as a despised tinker, a soldier of the English Revolution. And he read the Bible in the prison, furnished his sensitive imagination with profound impression and vivid images he wrote down. The result is his books The Pilgrim’s Progress《天路历程》.

The Pilgrim’s Progress was published in 1678, after he was released from prison. It has become one of the most popular books in the English language. Bunyan was still in danger of persecution at times. In the summer of 1688, he went out to reconcile a quarrel between a son and a angry father in a neighbouring village. When he came back he was caught by a heave rain. He was seized with a violent fever, and died in a few days. 2. The Pilgrim’s Progress

1) It is a religious allegory. It tells the spiritual pilgrimage of Christian, who flies from the City of Destruction, meets with the perils风险and temptation of the Slough of Despond绝境, Vanity Fair, and Doubting Castle, faces and overcomes the demon Appollyon恶魔, and finally comes to the Delectable Mountains愉悦山 and the Celestial City天国城.

2) Though an allegory, its characters impress the reader like real persons. The places that

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Bunyan describes in words are English scenes, and conversations which enliven his narratives vividly repeat the language of his time. In reality, the Celestial City in the Pilgrim’s Progress is the vision of an ideal happy society dreamed by a poor tinker in the 17th century through a veil of religion.

3) Bunyan wanted to criticize the corrupt state and also express his trial to Charles and James. He had a deep hatred of both the King and his government. He saw the injustice of laws, trials and magistrates立法. And that is why his Pilgrim’s Progress had won the immediate success among the bakers, weavers, cobblers, tailors, tinkers, shepherds, ploughmen, servant-girls of his time. The book has became one of the most popular works in the English language, and it has a high reputation.

Chapter 2 John Milton

1. His life

Milton was born in London in 1609.His father, a scrivener公证员，was a Puritan and a lover of music and literature. From boyhood Milton was a hard-working student, and at 12 people can find him a scholar in spirit. Milton’s father very early recognizing his son’s exceptional abilities, encourages them by private tutoring in Italian, French, music and other subjects in addition to a day school education. John Milton grows up in a family full of music and learning. Then he went to Christ’s College at Cambridge, where he gets a study of Latin. He was often chosen to deliver speeches before the students. At that time, the medieval courting and drinking were prevailing in Cambridge. But Milton is famous for his personal beauty and strictness for his life and was nicknamed ―the Lady of the Christ’s‖. 2. At Horton

He received master degree in 1632. After graduating from university, he came back to his father’s hometown. And he devoted himself for more than 6 years to private study, roaming over漫谈 the wide fields of classical, Hebrew希伯来文, Italian and English literature, and studying science, theology神学and music. He prepared himself for his poetry for his poetry career. His father wanted him to enter the church of England, but he thinks that it is against his own conscience. He prepared himself for calling of a poet. So Milton was already a dedicated person before he was 20. 3. His early poems

In 1657, Edward King, a young minister, who had been a classmate of Milton’s at college had shared his ambition to write poetry, was drowned at sea. The college decided to publish a memorial volume and Milton was asked to contribute. So he wrote down the Lysidas《莱西达斯》. This is n elegy in mournful language悲哀的语言 and sentiment. It has no superior in the English language.

4. His Travel on the Continent

At 29, he had a tour of Europe. He travelled in France, Switzerland, and Italy, meeting and winning the friendship of many artists and leading intellectuals, including Galileo, a famous Italian scientist, who suffered prosecution for his discover in science. Milton was fascinated by Italian art and music, but he didn’t like Rome, the center of Catholic Church. He thought that is ―grim wolf‖. In 1639, he was planning to go on his journey when news reached him of the break between the king and the parliament. He took a modest house in London and began to teach several private pupils. But soon, he plunged himself in for which he had long been preparing. At that time, the Church of England was the major protector of the England. So attacks were made on the Church of England as well as on the king.

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Milton wrote a series of pamphlets, heading by of ― Reformation of England ‖《论英国的改革》,in which he urged the necessity of religious reform. In 12, he married, but the marriage was an unhappy one, because his wife’s family was a strongly royalist and his wife was unable to share her husband’s political views, so they divorced.

His own trouble with his wife leads to his consideration of freedom of divorce. So in 13, Milton publishes a series of pamphlets on marriage and divorce. He showed a high respect for woman as an intellectual companion and comrade rather than a mere housekeeper and child bearer. He held the idea that the government should support the legal reason for divorce. 5. His Masterpiece

He wrote down a lot of pamphlet, so Milton was also a spokesman of the English Revolution. He sold them when he was young and paltriest. As a spokesman of English Revolution, Milton left his house to the skit of London. But at last, Milton was arrested and his books were burned. When he released, all his properties were gone. His family was poor. He got his knowledge from his dream of poet at that time. Since his boyhood , his eyes had been weak ,so until by the beginning of in 1652,Milton had become totally blind. He began writing his Paradise Lost by his daughter wrote for him. He continued on matter what difficulty he met, he finished it in 1855, with great difficulty he found a publisher, but only got 18 pounds. With great success of his epic, he wrote another famous work Paradise Regained, and published in 1661.

Though he lived under prosecution, he had no lack of friends and visitors. His youngest daughter described him as an excellent companion especially for young. The personal beauties of his youth naturally yield to age and illness, but he seemed always to have been careful for his dress and appearance in spite of his blindness. His delight in gardens was life long, even when he couldn’t appreciate their trimness, and study in spite of fate and of the harm it had physically done on him. He never abandoned. Paradise Lost 《失乐园》 1. Paradise Lost

Paradise Lost is Milton’s masterpiece. It is the greatest epic. Before its actual writing, Milton had the subject in his mind for a quarter of a century and made drafts about the characters and plot.

It is a long epic in 12 books and in blank verse. The stories were taken from the Old Testment: The Creation (Genesis) 《创世纪》; The Rebelling in heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion from Heaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan’s temptation of Eve; and the departure of Adam and Eve from Eden. 2. Story

The epic opens with the description of a meeting among the fallen angels. Led by the freedom-loving Satan, the rebellious angels rose against God himself, but in the battle with the hosts of angels that remained true to God they were finally defeated. Satan and his followers are banished from heaven and driven into hell. But even here in hell, in middle of flames and poisonous fumes烟气, Satan and his followers are not discouraged. Satan’s proud spirit is unyielding执着. Satan chooses the most perfect of spots ever created by God ,the Garden of Eden, for his battlefield, where live the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, who are allowed by God to enjoy the beauties and bounties of Paradise. They couldn’t eat the fruit that grow on the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Satan desires to tear them away from the influence of

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God and make them tools in his struggle against God’s authority.

God learns of his intention, however, and sends the Archangel大天使Raphael to warn Adam and Eve of Satan’s plan. The Archangel reminds them of their vow of obedience and gives a detailed narration of Satan’s rebellion in the past. Raphael goes on to relate God’s creation of the earth, heaven and all living creatures. But on Adam’s request for an explanation of the rotation of the celestial bodies天体, Raphael advises him not to inquire into matters which do not concern him directly and leaves him.

No sooner is Raphael gone on than Satan assumes the shape of a serpent幻化成蛇, and appears to Eve. He persuades Eve to pick the fruit and eat it. Eve eats an apple from the forbidden tree and plucks another for Adam. God sees all this, and Edam and Eve, husband and wife, are both deprived of immortality, exiled from Paradise and doomed to an earthly life full of hardship and sufferings, to eat bread by ―the sweat of the face.‖ 3. Theme and characterization

The main idea of the poem is a revolt against God authority. In the poem god is no better than a selfish despot, seated upon a throne wit with a chorus of angels about him eternally singing his praises. his long speeches are never pleasing. He is a cruel and unjust in his struggle against Satan. His Archangel is a bore .His angels are silly. while the rebel Satan who rose against god and, though defeated, still sought for revenge ,is by far the most striking character in the poem.

Adam and Eve embody Milton belief in the powers of man. Their craving for knowledge, as Milton stresses, adds a particular significance to their characters .His longing for knowledge opens before mankind a wide road to an intelligent and active life.

It has been noticed by many critics that the picture of god surrounded by his angels, who never think of expressing any opinions of their own, resembles the court of an absolute monarch, while Satan and his followers, who freely discuss all issues in council, bear resemblance to a republican Parliament. This alone is sufficient to prove that Milton revolutionary feelings made him forsake religious orthodoxy. 4. The Image of Satan

The finest thing in Paradise Lost is the description of hell, and Satan is real hero of the poem. Like a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. He is firmer than the rest of the angels. It is always from to him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. It is he who, passing the guarded gates and boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and across so many obstacles, make man revolt against god. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from god the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though wounded, he triumphs, for the thunder which hit upon his head left his invincible.

He prefers independence to happy servility, and welcomes his defeat and his torments as a glory, a liberty, and a joy.

Samson Agonistes《大力士参孙》

Samson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedies .It deals with the story of Samson from the‖ Book of judges‖ in the Old Testament. Samson was a athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife Dalilah and blinded by his enemies the philistines. Led into the temple ―to make them support ,‖he wreaked his vengeance upon his enemies by pulling down the temple upon them and upon himself in a common ruin.

There is much in common between Samson and Milton. Like Samson, Milton has also

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been embittered by un unwise marriage, persecuted by his enemies, has suffered from blindness and yet is unconquerable.

Samson miserable blind servitude among his enemies, his agonizing longing for sight and freedom, and the last terrible triumph all strongly suggests Milton passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life. Samson is Milton.

Comment about Milton

1.Milton is the greatest English revolutionary poet of the 17th century. He is a great epic poet. He dedicated himself to a noble political and turned poet only because the cause had failed. Though his genius is poetic, he is epic poet only by circumstance. Some English progress poets, such as Wordsworth draws inspiration from him.

2.Milton wrote the greatest epic in English literature.

3.He is a master of the blank verse. He is a pioneer to introduce blank verse very useful for the expression of epical forms. 4.Milton is a great stylist.

Part Four The English Literature in the 18th Century

Chapter 1 The Enlightenment and Classicism

1. The Enlightenment and the 18th century

After a series of events in 17th century, England entered a period comparatively peaceful development, 18th century is also called Enlightenment century. England became a constitutional monarchy and power passed from the King to the parliament and cabinet ministers. The 18th century England witnessed the technique innovations which equipped industry with steam, the new energy source and new tools and rapid growth of industry and commerce influence the way of social life as a whole. This is called the Industry Revolution. Great changes also took place in rural England. The majority of peasants were ruined and dreamed of their land which passed into the hands of landlords. The common people in town and villages protect against unbearable the conditions of their life. So in the 18th century a lot of uprisings broke out in different part of the country. 2. The Enlightenment in Europe

The 18th century marked the beginning of the intelligently movement in Europe known as Enlightenment. It was on the whole an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlightener fought against class in inequality, stagnation prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They attempt to place all branches of science and the services of the mankind. Science was to answer the actual needs and requirements of people. 3. The English Enlighteners

English enlighteners differed in some way from those of France. The philosophers and writers of France hold the idea of ―cleared the minds of men for the coming revolution‖. But the English enlighteners set no revolutionary aim before them. England had gone through its bourgeois revolution in the 17th century. So English Enlighteners of the 18th century try to bring it to an end by clearing away the feudal remnants and bourgeois ideas. The representatives of the enlightenments of English literatures were Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, they are the essayists and Alexander Pope the poet, and Edward Gibbon, he is historian. In their works, these writers criticized different aspects of contemporary England, discussed social problem, and even touched upon morality and private life. They intended to reform social life according to a more reasonable principle, though this principle could never go beyond the limit of

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bourgeois interests. The literature of enlightenment in England mainly appealed to the middle class readers.

Chapter 2 Addison and Steele

1. Steele and The Tatler《闲谈者》

Richard Steele斯蒂尔(1672—1729) was born in Dublin, in the same year as Addison. They were educated at the same school and then went to Oxford together. Steele began his literary career as pamphleteer. At that time, the conflict between the aristocracy and the rising bourgeoisie was acute. In 1709, he started his paper—The Tatler. It came out three times a week and sold out at a penny a copy. Each issue contained several essays. The contents were diversified. In this paper, Steele wrote in a conversational style on many topics. His attraction was made to ―coffee houses‖, that is to say, to the middle classes for whose enlightenment he stood up.

2. Addison and The Spectator《旁观者》 1).Joseph Addison约瑟夫·艾迪生

Joseph Addison (1672—1719) was a distinguished Latin scholar and led a prosperous life. In 1704, he published his poet—The Campaign—to celebrate a duke’s victory. It took the country by storm. And from then on, Addison rose steadily in political office. During 1711—1712, he had a cooperation with Steele in publishing a paper—The Spectator. And their names have been closed linked together by this partnership. The Spectator is a daily paper, supposed to be edited by a small club headed by Mr. Spectator, who frequent London as an observer. The essays in the paper mainly deal with the customs, manners, morals and literature of the time. Their object is ―to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality‖. In fact, the paper was continuing the idea of struggle of anti-aristocracy反对贵族统治. It gathered up the new ideas of the time and put them within the reach of the reading public, in effort to show how thoughts and people can be waken up. Among the most striking features of the paper are the character sketches of Mr. Spectator and the members of his club, and the short stories about them.

2) .Comment on the Mr. Spectator:

He is profoundly learned, being acquainted with all celebrated books in ancient and modern tongues. Moreover, he has travelled in many countries in search of knowledge. He spends his life in observing his contemporaries and comparing their manners, customs and ideas with those of which he has read. He visits The Exchange, theatres and coffeehouses where various men gathered. He was the ideal spokesman of rising bourgeoisie of the 18th century, so the character sketches are the forerunner of the English novel though they do not form a novel.

3. Steele’s and Addison’s contribution to the English literature:

1).Their writing formed a new code of social morality for the rising bourgeoisie. 2).They gave s true picture of social life of the England in the 18th contrary.

3).In the hands of Addison and Steele, the English essay had completely established itself as a literary genre. Using it as a form of character sketching and story telling, they marked the dawn of modern English novel.

Chapter 3 Alexander Pope亚历山大·蒲柏

He was the most important poet in the early part of 18th century. Weak and crippled from childhood, he was deprived of common pleasure of life. He was only amusement of reading and writing, he taught himself by reading and translating Latin, Italy, and Greek poem with the

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help of dictionaries and grammatical books. After much self-study, he began to write poetry very early. At 12, he was able to compose dramatic poem. At 16,he wrote his Pastorals and when he was only 22, his Essay on Criticism was published. Essay on Criticism is didactic written in his heroic couplets, it sums up art of poetry. It tells the poets and critics how to write and appreciate a poetry according to the principles set by Greek and Roman writers.

In 1714, he published ―The Rape of the Lock‖《夺发记》. This caused a quarrel and became the talk of England.

Pope seized the occasion to write mock-heroic poem, in which he satired the trivialty琐事 and silliness of high society with a delicate wit. The poem win immediate success. As an epic for its description and satire of the court life with its cards, parties, toilettes, lap-dogs, tea-drinking, snuff-taking and idle vanities.

During the years of 1715-1726, Pope translated and published Iliad and Odyssey《伊里亚特与奥德赛》. His Essay on Man is a philosophical poem in heroic couplets published in 1732-1734. The poems wave of man, society and universe is summed up in a very famous line: One truth is clear, whatever is right. This shows Pope’s class limitation as a bourgeoisie in Enlightener. He didn’t want to change the order of things. Pope lacked the lyrical gift, but he had an extraordinary technical skill in versification.

He is a master of the heroic couplet and shows his talent in diction. His lines are smooth, balanced and concise. Many of them has become household seeings. Pope is not one of those writers, who are never at a loss for words. His style is a fruit of great patient in polishing his poetry. He has never been surpassed by any other English poets. He is an example of a conscious literary artist.

Chapter 3 Classism

1. Classism

Addison, Steele and Pope belonged to the classic school. The classists modelled themselves after the Greek and Latin authors, and try to guide literary creation by some fixed laws and rules, drawn from Greek and Latin works. Rimed couplet instead of blank verse, the three unities of time, place and action, regulated in construction and the presentation of types rather than individuals. These were some standards the classists required of drama. Poetry followed the ancient divisions should be lyric, epic, didactic, satiric or dramatic. And each class should be guided by its own principles. Prose should be precise, direct, smooth and flexible. The English classists followed these standards in their writings.

2. The difference between John Dryden and the 18th English Enlighteners.

The former wrote something to please the declining aristocracy during the restoration while the latter wrote for the rising bourgeoisie to tidy up the capitalist of social order. Because of its needs of the English middle class, classism achieved a rapid growth and popular for the better part of 18th century.

Chapter 4 Samuel Johnson塞缪尔·约翰逊

He is lexicographer, critic and poet. He was son of poor book seller. After studying at Oxford for little more than 1 year, he was forced by poverty to leave the university. Then followed his long struggle as a hack writer. His principle works include London and The vanity of Human wishes. They are two stories in heroic couplets. This is an imitation of roman poet. He also edited to periodicals. The rambler, and The idler, after the pattern of the Spectator and The Tatler in1747, some book sellers asked him to compile a dictionary of English language

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and it took 8 years to finish its enormous books. An in 1755,this dictionary was published. The dictionary has long been displaced by later ones. It mark an import of study and development. His dictionary also marked the end of English writers. In 17, he founded the famous literary man in London centered around him. He died in 1784, was buried in west minster.

Chapter 5 James Boswell詹姆士·鲍斯威尔

He came from Scotland to London at 22, made the acquaintance of Johnson and admired the old doctor. Then for 21 years, he followed Johnson closely, talking or listing to him in every possible occasion and writing down in a note books everything at he did said. When Johnson died, Boswell gathered together his notes and records, made collections and arrangements of them and after 7 years labor, give the word The life of John, which had become a classic of English biography

Chapter 6 Edward Gibbon爱德华·吉布(本)

Gibbon was born in a very rich family in 1737. At 16 he was sent by his father to Lausanne where he lived for 5 years. In Lausanne he learned to speak and write in France until he could think in that language. He studied French, philosophy literature and become a free thinker under the Enlightenment in France. In 1761 he published in French his maiden work – Essay, on the study of literature. He early showed an inclination for history and was familiar with the historical works in ancient times and in his own way. Gibbon worked for 12 years to collect materials for his work. In 1776 the first volumes –The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire appeared. It took London by storms. The whole edition was sold out in a few days and a second and third was sacredly enough to meet demand. The other fire volumes was written and published during the next 12 years. He died in London in 1794. He lived the comfortable and uneventful life of a scholar. The comment on his work:

Gibbon’s work is a gigantic work converting thousands of pages, enclose of print in its preparation. He was never content with second hand accounts. So a solid foundation was built for his life work with innumerable facts from Greek authors, Latin authors, chroniclers of Middle Ages, as well as historical writings in various language of his own time. The first chapter was composed 3 times. The result of all these long and hard labor was a monumental work of 18th century. This work related the history of Roman Empire for about 13 centuries. Besides his great scholarship, Gibbon was also famous for his prose style.

Gibbon was a son of 18th century deeply absorbed in the spirit of enlightenment. But he could not outstrip the limitation of his bourgeoisie outlook. His work still remains a remarkable product of the enlightenment of the 18th century and the greatest historical work ever written by an English man.

Chapter 7 Sentimentalism

一、Sentimentalism in English Poetry

By the middle of the 18th century, however sentimentalism came into being as a result of bitter, discontent with social reality among the enlightened people. The representative of sentimentalism continued to struggle against feudalism. But at the same time they sensed the contradiction in the process of capitalist development. Dissatisfied with reason, sentimentalist appealed to sentiment. Sentimentalism turned to countryside for its material and so it’s in striking contrast to classism.. And to the social and political life in London Pope and Addison entertained and educated in middle class but had no message for the laboring people. At the same time the poetry of the sentimentalists is marked by a sincere sympathy for the poverty

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stricken especially peasants. They wrote very simple things though still in class style. The appearance and development of sentimentalist poetry marked the midway in the transition from the classism to its opposite-Romanticism in English poetry. 二、The representatives of sentimentalism 1. Thomas Gray

It is said that Thomas Gray (1716-1771) took six years to compose his famous \"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard\which is a model of sentimentalist poetry. Written with a classical precision and polish, it shows a keen interest in the English countryside and a sincere feeling for the life of common people. The poet meditates in a village cemetery on the graves of the humble and poor that surround him. Its prevailing tone is melancholy, as is shown in the first stanza.

2. Edward Young爱德华·扬

Edward Young (1683-1765), his masterpiece \"Night thoughts\"《夜思》 is a long poem of nine books. Sermons in blank verse. What character this poem is its sentimental melancholy which finds it's pression in noturanl meditations in church yard. The same is vanity of earthly life. The strange book was popular at the time and set the tone of grave yard. 3.William Collins威廉·柯林斯(1721-1759)

His masterpiece \"Ode to the Evening\" is a lyric poem in 52 lines. It is unrhymed and in a very unique stanza form of 2 lines followed by iambic trimeter三音步 in which the poet seems to whisper for fear of breaking the twilight tranquillity. The poem is one of the jems of English lyric history.

4. William Cowpers威廉·古柏(1731-1800)

His \"The Task\" is a long poem written in blank verse. It is well-known for its description of country scenes, of woods and brooks and the letter-carriers on his rounds. 5. James Thompson詹姆斯·汤普森(1700-1748)

He was the first poet to base a complete poetry work on a description of the nature on every season of the year. \"The seasons\" is his masterpiece. His style is a reminiscent of Milton. He used the blank verse in this poem with various rhythms and long sentences. The Seasons is the first of lot poems of rural life and scenery written in the eighteenth century.

Chapter 7 Oliver Goldsmith

1. Life

Oliver Goldsmith 奥利弗·哥尔斯密(1730-1774), an important writer of Johnson's circle, was born in Ireland, the son of a poor curate. He was a boy full of warm imagination and inclined to \"build castle in the air\" But he was regarded as hopeless stupid at school. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar公费生. So he wrote ballads for the street singers, who paid him a little money for them, and his pleasure was to steal out at night and hear his ballads sung.

By nature he was unpractical. After obtaining a degree in 1749, he tried his hand on several jobs but all failed. During these years he became popular as a singer of songs and a teller of tales. Then he wandered over Europe like a cheerful beggar, singing and playing his flute for food and lodging. After a year or more, he returned to London.

The next few years were a bitter struggle for him to make a living by doing hack work for the London booksellers. He endured many pains during the early period of his literary career. Then he made the acquaintance of Mr. Samuel Johnson and became a member of the famous Literary Club.

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He produced several works: The Deserted Village, The Vicar of Wake field, She Stoops to Conquer, The City of the World.

In 1774, when his literary reputation had risen very high, a sudden disease carried him off. Goldsmith is one of the most lovable characters in English literature. 2.、The Deserted Village《荒村》 The Deserted Village is Goldsmith's best poem. It contains some charming descriptions of village life.

3、The Vicar of Wakefield 《威克菲尔德牧师传》

The novel The Vicar of Wakefield, is his masterpiece. The story told the vicar, kindly, charitable, devoid of worldly housekeeping and her children. At first, they are prosperous and contented, but misfortunes come upon them thick and fast. The vicar loses his fortune through the bankruptcy of a merchant. Then vicar himself is thrown into prison for debt. George, Vicar’s son, was also sent to prison for challenging the squire to a duel to avenge his sister. By that time, the family has made the acquaintance of a broken-down gentleman, kind-hearted but somewhat eccentric. Then he makes it known to the Primrose family that he is no other than Squire 乡绅Thornhill's桑希尔 uncle.

In the Vicar of Wakefield, the corruption of the town life are contrasted to quiet family happiness in the bottom of the nature and the peaceable manners of the village. Dr. Primrose is the author's good man. Through him Goldsmith also human sentiment as a means of achieving happiness and social justice. That is why he is acknowledged to be one of the representatives of English sentimentalism.

Chapter 8 Laurance Sterne劳伦斯·斯特恩

He is a novelist of the sentimentalist school, was born in Ireland, the son of an English army officer. At school, his wit and cleverness was highly valued by his teachers. But presently his father, while at Gibraltar, got into a quarrel and died in a duel with another officer. His relations put him through Cambridge University. After leaving Cambridge, he became a clergyman and settled down in the country. Until he was nearly 50years old, he never thought of writing a book. He passed his leisure time hunting, riding, fishing, drinking, playing cards and making love.

His famous two works were Tristram Shandy《绅士特里斯舛·项狄》 and A Sentimental Journey.

The Sentimental Journey is a narrative of Sterne's personal experience of travel in France. It tells how Sterne made himself at home with all sorts of French people. He gives us many pleasant little pictures full of joy, merriment and sunshine.

Chapter 9 Samuel Richardson塞缪尔·理查森

一．Brief introduction

He is another representative of sentimental school. He is also a rich business man. He had received a very indifferent education. But he had early developed a passion for letter-writing. At the age of 13, he used to be called on to write love letters for young women. So he acquired some abilities in invention and some insights into the secret of the female heart, and considerable fluency in writing letters. He was famous as storyteller, letter writer and moralizer. His masterpiece is Pamela 二．Pamela《帕米拉》

Pamela is a young maid servant, whose mistress has just died, the lady’s son taking a dishonorable of her position，pursues her. She refuses him, leaves the house and is continuously pursued by the person. After a series of events, the person is compelled to come to terms and

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decided to marry her then they get married. Pamela was a new thing in three ways:

1. It discarded the accomplishment of the former heroic romances, and pictured the life and love of ordinary people.

2. Its intention was to afford not only entertainment but for moral instruction.

3. It described not only the sayings and doings of the characters but also their secret thoughts and feelings. It was the first English psycho-analytical novel.

After Pamela, Richardson wrote other novels: Clarissa Harlowe《克拉丽莎》 and Sir Charles Grandison《查尔斯·格兰迪森爵士》, both in the same form of letters and in the same moralizing stram. Pamela became a“best-seller”of the day.

Chapter 10 Defoe and the Rise of the English Novel

1. The Rise of the English novel

The modern European novel began after the Renaissance. The modern English novel began two centuries later, in the 18th century. The rise and growth of the realistic novel is the most prominent achievement of 18th century English literature, which has given the world such novelists as Defoe, Swift, Richardson, Smollett, Fielding and Stern.

These writers lived in a period of a rapid growth of capitalism. Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe was one of the forerunners of the English realistic novels. It creates the image of an enterprising Englishman, typical of the English bourgeoisie of the 18th century. And Fielding’s novels unfold a panorama 全视角of life in all sections of English society. Fielding was the real founder of the realistic novel in England. Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels typifies the bourgeois world in the repellent令人讨厌的 images. And Smollett is another 18th century novelist of the realistic school.

The 18th century was the golden age of the English novel. The novelists of this period understood that ―the job of a novelist was to tell the truth about life as a novelist‖. This explains the achievement of the English novel in the 18th century. 2. Daniel Defoe丹尼尔·笛福(1660-1731) 1) His Life

Daniel Defoe was born in London, the son of a butcher. His parents set him apart for the ministry, but he gave up the idea of becoming a preacher. After schooling, he became a hosier售袜者, and between 1678-1683 travelled in Spain, Italy, France and Germany as a merchant. In the year 1685 Defoe took part in the Duke of Monmouth’s rebellion against James Ⅱ and narrowly escaped punishment.

Defoe was a supporter of The Glorious Revolution. He joined William’s army late in 1688, and took great interest in the establishment of the new government. In lots of his pamphlets, he defended the new political order and attacked the adherents of the Stuarts斯图亚特王室的追随者. His best-known pamphlet was The Trueborn Englishman—a satire.

As a merchant, Defoe had seen ups and downs in his business. He became bankrupt in 1692. Within four years, he was doing well again. In May 1703, Defoe was arrested and put in prison. The sentence was three public exposures in the pillory. When he was made to stand in the pillory in the public square, he was cheered by the people as a hero. This experience marked a turning point in the career of Defoe. After his release Defoe redoubled his activities as a journalist and pamphleteer.

He was a merchant, soldier, economist, politician, journalist, pamphleteer, publicist, and novelist. His versatility多才多艺fills us authorship. He was great in at least 2 occupations: journalism and authorship. His place in English literature was made for him by his novels. As a

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journalist he wrote for the newspaper upon such various subjects as banks, schools and education, religion, the army, causes of poverty, methods of improving commerce, robbers and devils, marriage.

His journalistic work was a good training for his future writing. As a journalist, he had had great practice in writing simple concise prose. So he acquired a pure naked English—smooth, easy, almost colloquial通俗易懂, yet never coarse\\rude. He loved short, crisp, plain sentences. There is nothing artificial in his language, it is really common English.

For more than forty years, Defoe has been collecting knowledge as a journalist. He had an enormous capacity for observing, grouping and memorizing details about anything and everything under the sun. So when he began to write his novels, it was not at all necessary for him to go outside of his room to look for facts.

As a journalist, he had learned how to make his reporting vivid and credible by a skillful use of circumstantial details. And by and by he possessed a particular faculty of creative imagination. At last he was able to invent any number of extraordinary situations so naturally that it was impossible for people living in Defoe’s own time to suspect that Defoe’s stories were not absolute truth. This power to make his characters alive and his stories credible is an inimitable gift. 2) Defoe’s novels

The year 1719 marked a new period in Defoe’s literary career, for in that year he published his Robinson Crusoe, the book which makes him immortal. Other novels followed in quick succession. The most interesting of them are Captain Singleton《辛格顿船长》(1720), Moll Flanders《摩尔·弗兰德斯》(1722), Colonel Jacque《杰克上校》, (1722). Captain Singleton is a novel of adventure, and Singleton is the narrator of his own story. Colonel Jacque is also a novel of adventure, Jack is abandoned by his parents and early becomes a pickpocket. Moll Flanders is written in the form of autobiography. Moll Flanders is the daughter of a woman who had been transported to Virginia for theft soon after her child’s birth. In these novels the reader is taken from country scenes to large cities, and the reader draw the inevitable conclusion, there is no other difference between the world of thieves and vagabonds on the one hand and that of the lords and ladies on the other but the former receives sympathy which the latter does not. Defoe’s novels were first published anonymously, which let the reader believe that there were genuine and authentic stories. The impression was heightened by the circumstantial detail and verisimilitude of the narratives. Robinson Crusoe 《鲁宾逊漂流记》

Robinson Crusoe is his masterpiece. The novel is based on a real fact. In 1704, Alexander, a Scottish sailor, was isolated on a distant island in the Atlantic, and live there quite alone for four years. The story of his adventures arose great public interest and several records of his solitary life on the island. Defoe took up the subject and wrote a novel when he was almost 60. He embellished润色the sailor’s story with many incidents of his own imagination. So the novel reads like a true story.

Plot: The story take place in the middle of the 17th century, in the family of an old English gentleman, Mr. Crusoe. The old man designs his son, Robinson for the law, but the young man has set his mind on becoming a sailor. When Robinson is 19, he runs away from home and sets out to sea. After many perils and adventure on the sea, he settles down in Brazil. But the call of the sea is so strong that he embarks on another voyage to Africa.

A frightful storm changes the course of the ship and she is wrecked off the coast of an

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uninhabited island. Of all the ship’s crew Robinson alone escapes to the shore after strenuous efforts. He spends the night on a tree for fear of wild animals. In the morning he swims to the wrecked ship to find no living creature on board, except a dog and two cats.

Robinson builds a raft and tries by all means to carry to shore the store of necessities on the ship, which consist of bread, rice, barley大麦,corn, planks, lead and gunpowder, an axe and two saws. From then on he lives all alone on the island.

He sets up a tent. He plants barley and corn, and harvests crops in time. He spends many months of hard toil in shaping a stone—mortar for grinding grain. He strives for days and days to make earthenware pots. It takes Robinson over five months to fell a big tree and fashion it into a boat. But great is his disappointment when he is unable to shift the heave boat to the sea.

Robinson’s will-power in bettering his living conditions is amazing: strong winds, rains and earthquakes do not stop him from attaining his once set resolutions and plans. He explores the island, hunts, makes clothes from the hides of the killed animals, gathers wild grapes and dries them into raisins葡萄干, domesticates wild goats, smokes and salts meats. Grown wise with experience in labor, he makes a living on the island by self-reliance.

Many years go by. One day Robinson discovers the imprint of a man’s foot on the island. Then he learns that the island is occasionally visited by some cannibals食人族, who come to celebrate their victories over their enemies and to devour their captives. This man, named Friday by Robinson, proves to be a clever young Negro and becomes Robinson’s true and faithful companion. With Friday’s help, Robinson builds another boat.

Meanwhile an English ship drops anchor off the island. The captain takes Robinson and Friday to England. Wishing to see the island where he had sent so many years, Robinson pays a visit to it once more. During an attack of the Indians his faithful Friday is killed.

The success of Robinson Crusoe induced the author to write the second part of the book, which is almost as exciting as the first one. The book was so well received by the English readers that wherever there was a Bible, there was a copy of Robinson Crusoe.

The writers of the Enlightenment attached great importance to the moulding塑造 of character and to education through the influence of varied environment. Defoe traces the development of Robinson Crusoe from a naïve and artless youth into a clever and hardened man, tempered by numerous trials in his eventful life. The realistic account of record of the struggles of Robinson singlehanded the pitiless forces of nature on the island forms the best part of the novel. Robinson is a real hero, and the best qualities of his character are shown to the readers: his marvelous capacity for work, his boundless energy for work and persistence in overcoming obstacles. He struggles hard against nature and makes it bend before his will. In describing Robinson’s life on the island, Defoe glorifies human labor. Labor saves Robinson from despair, and is a souce of pride and happiness.

Robinson is typical of the English bourgeoisie at the earlier stages of the English development. He is most practical and exact and always religious. Defoe’s bourgeois outlook manifests itself in the fact that he doesn’t condemn Negro-slavery in his book.

Chapter 11 Jonathan Swift乔纳森·斯威夫特

1.His Life

Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin, Ireland in 1667. His father died before he was born. His mother was poor, and he was compelled to accept aid from relatives. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, but he read only what appealed to him. He was often at wars with the college authorities. When he left the college, the only position to find him was living in the house of a

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distant relative, as a kind of private secretary. His relative was a diplomat and a writer of some renown声誉. He was old and irritable. So Swift’s position was not a pleasant one. He was looked down upon as a servant and ate at the servants’ table. He bore at all this humiliation to earn a scanty living for his poor mother. Then he spent ten of his best years in his relative’s house. At last, he couldn’t bear the relation and left the place in a little church in Ireland.

He never forgot this bitter experience of living under the roof of a noble family. In after life, when he became a famous writer and one of the most important figures in London, he vented his early anger on the noblemen who now flattered him and courted his favour. But while the nobleman feared the lash of his pen, the common folk felt the warmth of his kindness. He used his great influence for others. Remembering how he had suffered in his youth, he tried to help every young man of talent who seemed deserving. He sought them up, brought them up to London and obtained positions for them.

During the time, Swift wrote his two great books, A Tale of a Tub and The Battle of the Books, which were published together in 1704 and made him well-known as a satirist. Bickerstaff Almanac《比克斯塔夫先生的历书》(1708). 2.Gulliver’s Travels《格列佛游记》

With the publication of his literary works, Swift’s popularity as a writer spread widely. But he still lived in a bad condition. He applied to the English government for a position. But the government gave him a lower position in Dublin. Swift accepted bitterly and returned to Ireland in 1713. After that, he withdrew from some activities, realizing that there was but little difference between the Tories and the Whigs, the two opposite parties of the ruling classes.

Swift wrote his greatest work Gulliver’s Travels in Ireland. The first part of it appeared in October 1726 and by November the book was in everybody’s hand.

The story of the book is known to us all. In the first part Gulliver describes his shipwreck in Lilliput小人国 where the tallest people were six inches high. The emperor believed himself to be the delight and terror of the universe, but it appeared quite absurd to Gulliver who was twelve times as tall as he. In his account of the two parties in the country, distinguished by the use of high and low heels, Swift satirizes the Tories and the Whigs in England.

In the second part, the voyage to Brobdingnag大人国is described. The third part is a satire on philosophers and projectors. And in the last part, Gulliver’s satire is of the bitterest.

Swift hated all kinds of oppression—political, economical and religious. But he cherished a great love for the people. Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels gives an unparalleled satirical depiction of the vices of his age. 3. Pamphlets on Ireland

Swift’s pamphlets on Ireland form a very important part of his works. They have now become part of classic English literature. Swift’s life in Ireland gave him an intimate knowledge of the miserable condition of the Irish people. His pity for the Irish peasants increased as he saw that they were so oppressed by charges that hardly any could afford to provide shoes or stockings for their children. The manufactures and commerce of the country were ruined by the English laws, and agriculture was crippled by the prohibition of exportation of cattle and wool to foreign countries. So, in a series of pamphlets Swift denounced the cruel and unjust treatment of Ireland by the English government. Two of the most famous ones are The Drapier’s Letters《布商的信札》and A Modest Proposal《一个温和的建议》. 4. Swift’s style

Swift is one of the greatest masters of English prose. His language is simple, clear and

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vigorous. There are no ornaments in his writing, but it comes home to the reader.

He seems to have no difficulty in finding words to express exactly the impression which he wishes to convey. In simple, direct and precise prose, Swift is almost unsurpassed in English literature. It is a great education in English to read Swift’s prose.

Swift is a master of satires, and his irony is deadly. But his satire is masked by an outward gravity, and an apparent calmness conceals his bitter irony. This makes his satire all the more powerful, as shown in his Modest Proposal.

Chapter 12 Fielding

1. Life

Henry Fielding was born in 1707, in the family of a poor, retired general. He was educated at Eton and Leyden University. But his family was so poor that he was compelled to leave the University after one and a half years of studies. So he began to support himself from his very youth by writing for the stage, and soon became one of the most popular playwrights in London. His dramatic works were mostly comedies. They are filled with political theatrical and social satire. In 1737 an act was introduced, which restricted the theatres in London to three. For Fielding this act meant the end of his career as a dramatist. After that, he resumed his legal studies. Meanwhile he had not given up writing. In 17239, the Champion, a newspaper appeared, which was written mainly by Fielding.

In 1734, he married. Fielding used his wife as a model in creating his ideal women characters in his works. In 1736, his wife’s mother died, living her a large fortune. It was this fortune that enabled Fielding to take his wife away from the ups and downs of an author’s life in London, to his house in the countryside. 2.works

From 1742, Fielding wrote four novels: Joseph Andrews 《约瑟夫·安德鲁》(1742) Jonathan Wild《乔纳森·威尔德》 (1743) Tom Jones 《汤姆·琼斯》(1749) Amelia 《艾米莉亚》(1751) 1). Fielding’s method of telling a story

There are three ways in telling the story of a novel. It may be told in a series of letters. This was the method of Richardson. Secondly, the story may be put in the mouth of principal character. This was the method of Defoe and Swift. Then, thirdly, the story may be told directly by the author. It enables the author to develop his narrative in the fullest, freest, clearest and most straightforward manner, and also gives him opportunities of giving, at suitable places and personal explanations.

2). Satire in Fielding’s novels: Satire is everywhere in Fielding’s works. There are two kinds of satire. One is the humorous satire which is meant to be instructive and corrective. On the other hand, there is a grim satire which is used to criticize the evils of the corrupt ruling classes. 3). Fielding believed in the educational function of the novel. He shared the contemporary Enlighteners’ view that the purpose of the novel is not only to amuse, but also to instruct. The object of his novel is to present a faithful picture of life. Sometimes Fielding himself gives comments which help us to appreciate the deeper meaning.

4). Fielding’s prose style: He is a master of style. His style is easy, unlaboured and familiar, but extremely vivid and vigorous. His sentences are always distinguished by logic and musical rhythm. His command of language is remarkable.

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Fielding established for all the form of the modern novel. His place in the history of the English novel is unique. He has been called the “father of the English novel.”

Richard Sheridan理查德﹒谢里丹

Richard Sheridan is the most important English dramatist of the 18th century. He was born in Dublin. His father was an actor and his mother a novelist. Richard went to study at Harrow in 1762.

His works: The Rivals 《对手》

The School for Scandal 《绯闻学校》This is his masterpiece

William Blake威廉·布莱克

He never went to school. He picked up his education as well as he could. His favourite studies in early days were Shakespeare and Milton.

At the age of 14, he was appreciated to an engraver雕刻师. After leaving him, Blake began to earn his living as an engraver of illustrations for various publishers.

In 1782, he married Catherine, an illiterate girl. Blake taught her to read and to help him in engraving and painting.

His first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed in 1783. Songs of Innocence (17) and Songs of Experience (1794) are two other groups of Blake’s short lyrics. The poems in these little collections were engraved by his own hand, together with the illustrations coloured by his wife.

The Songs of Innocence contains poems which were written for children. Using a language which even little babies can learn by heart, Blake succeeded in describing the happy condition of a child before he knows anything about the pains of existence. The poet expresses his delight in the sun, the hills, the streams, the insects and the flowers, in the innocence of the child and of the lamb. Here everything seems to be in harmony.

The Songs of Experience is a much maturer work, entirely different themes are to be found. The poet drew pictures of needings and distress and showed the sufferings of the miserable.

The contract between the Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience is of great significance. It marks a progress in the poet’s outlook on life.

In 1790, he published the Marriage of Heaven and Hell, a prose work. It is very important for his expression of Blake’s spirit of revolt against oppression. Here he maintains liberty against the law of bourgeois society. Blake’s Position in English Literature

Blake is a symbolist and sometimes called a mystic because some of his poems are obscure and can be interpreted only symbolically.The whole temper of Blake’s genius is essentially opposed to the classical tradition of that age. His lyric poetry displays the characteristics of the romantic spirit. His revolutionary passion came near to that of Shelley. There is strong likeness between Shelley and Blake. So Blake is called a Pre-romanticist or forerunner of the Romantic poetry of the 19th century.

Robert Burns

Robert Burns was born in Scotland. His father was a poor Scottish peasant, who toiled from dawn till dark to earn a living for his family. The family often had nothing to eat. The children went barefoot and bareheaded. At 13, Robert, the eldest, was doing a peasants’ full day’s labour; at 16, he was chief labourer in his family and a master-hand at the plough.

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At 6, Robert had a little schooling. From his early years, he had the knowledge of Scottish folk songs. In spite of the backbreaking toil all the year round, Burns succeeded in squeezing out some time for reading. He managed read a little everyday at his meals and to write a little on Sundays, and while working in the fields he used to sing to himself, composing new songs in his mind to the old popular Scottish tunes which he knew. In this way, he wrote his poems.

In 1786, bankruptcy threatened his family, Burns resolved to go abroad in search of a living. He gathered together some of his early poems, hoping to sell them so that he could get some money for the journey. In July of that year, his Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect were printed. For the collection he got ￡20. He bought his ticket, and on the night before the ship sailed he wrote his Farewell to Scotland. But in the morning he changed his mind, for news was received that his collection of poems was a great success. In fact, it took all Scotland by storm. Not only scholars and literary men, but even plowboys and maid-servants eagerly spent their hard-earned shillings for this little book. Instead of going abroad, Burns hurried to Edinburgh爱丁堡to arrange for another edition of his work. He was entertained by the fashionable society of Edinburgh, but he was looked down upon. So he left the city in anger and disappointment and went back to the soil.

During the last 12 years of his life, Blake collected Scottish folk songs. He devoted all his free time to collecting, editing, resorting, and imitating traditional Scottish songs, or writing verses of his own to traditional tunes. Blake is remembered mainly for his songs written in the Scottish dialect on a variety of subjects. Most of Burns’ songs are of love and friendship.

A Red, Red Rose Auld Lang Syne《友谊地久天长》 Features of Burns’ Poetry

Burns is the national poet of Scotland. His songs were in Scotch in the core. As a poet of the peasants, Burns has the superiority over other poets. But in the rural theme Burns is entirely in his element. He was a peasant. He was himself in his own rural theme. He didn’t need to set himself to search for themes.

His greatest success was also largely due to his comprehensive knowledge and excellent mastery of the old song tradition. His peasant origin and environment especially aided him in mastering the happy simplicity, humour, directness and optimism, which are characteristic of old Scottish songs. He often revised old songs and improved them by a process of omission省略, condensation压缩 and addition. He often wrote his songs for special airs, some of which he collected himself.

Romanticism in England

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, romanticism came to be the new trend in English literature. It rose and grew under the influence of Industrial Revolution and French Revolution. So at that time, the social conflicts are very strong. Amid the social conflicts romanticism arose as a new literary trend. It prevailed in England during the period 1798—1832. Because the different social and political attitudes, they split into two schools. The passive\\elder generation of romanticists including Wordsworth华兹华斯, Coleridge柯勒律治and Southey骚塞, The representatives of active and younger romanticists are Byron, Shelley and Keats.

Wordsworth is the representative of the passive romanticists. He and Coleridge are friends. In 1798, Wordsworth and Coleridge published the Lyrical Ballads. The majority of poems in this poem were written by Wordsworth. The publication of the Lyrical Ballads marked the

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beginning of English Romanticism.

Wordsworth Coleridge and Robert Southey had been called Lake Poets since they had lived in the Lake District.

Wordsworth lived a long life and wrote a lot of poems. He was at his best in descriptions of mountains and river, flowers and birds, children and peasants, and reminiscences of his own childhood and youth. His works:

To the Cuckoo《致杜鹃》

I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud《云游》《水仙》 My Heart Leaps Up《我心雀跃》《砰然心跳》 Intimations of Immortality《永生的顿悟》 Samuel Taylor Coleridge is a poet and critic. He wrote the poem of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner 《老水手的故事》. Kubla Khan《忽必烈可汗》，a dream-poem. During an illness he retired to a farmhouse. One day he fell asleep as he was reading a passage about Kubla Khan, the Mongol conqueror, from a book of travels. While dreaming he composed a poem about two or three hundred lines. On waking he began to write down the poem, leaving only the 54-line fragment.

George Byron George Byron’s masterpiece is Don Juan《唐璜》. Don Juan was written in Italy during the years 1818—1823. It is 16,000 lines long, in 16 cantos篇, each stanza containing 8 iambic pentameter lines rhymed abababcc. Don Juan is a Spanish youth of noble class.

Shelley Shelley was a son of a conservative and narrow-minded country gentleman. Shelley was gentle and kind by nature, but he had a stout hert. He couldn’t stand any injustice. At Eton he was known as ―Mad Shelley‖. Works :

The Revolt of Islam 《的叛变》 Queen Mab《仙后麦布》

Prometheus Unbound《了的普罗米修斯》 Ode to the West Wind《西风颂》 Keats Works :

The Masque of Anarchy《魔王的化装》 Endymion《恩底弥翁》Greek myth Hyperion《许珀里翁》Greek myth To Autumn《秋颂》

Ode on Melancholy《许珀里翁颂》 Ode on a Grecian Urn《希腊古瓮颂》 Ode to Nightingale《夜莺颂》 Isabella《伊莎贝拉》

On the Grasshopper and Cricket《蝈蝈与蟋蟀》 Walter Scott 斯科特 Ivanhoe《伊凡赫》

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